Review of integration associations in the Eurasian space

Review of integration associations, cooperation mechanisms and institutions in the Eurasian space.

The Review uses the following basic concepts:

Central Eurasia is a geopolitical and geo-economic region located in the core of the Eurasian continent and has strategic significance both in terms of spatial configuration and in the context of the intersection of political, economic and civilizational interests that form the axis of interaction between East and West. Its core consists of Russia, Belarus, as well as the countries of Central Asia: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan. This space also includes the South Caucasus (Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia) and some other neighboring states.

Greater Eurasia is a space that covers the entire Eurasian continent and part of the African continent, including, according to the UN classification, 48 European countries, 50 Asian countries and 7 North African countries. Geopolitically, this term denotes the idea of ​​​​forming a single multipolar space of cooperation, integration and development between the states of Europe, Asia and North Africa, aimed at strengthening their relationships in the economic, energy, cultural and political spheres. Geographically, Greater Eurasia unites regions that account for almost 9/10 of the world's energy, about 3/4 of the world's GDP and 4/5 of the planet's population, covering eight of the world's twelve local civilizations.

The Greater Eurasian Partnership is a concrete, practical initiative of the President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin, put forward in his message to the Federal Assembly in 2015 in order to form a broad integration outline on the Eurasian continent. The basis of the envisaged collective efforts with interested partners is the desire to promote the construction of a fair polycentric world order, implying the development of equal, multi-speed and mutually beneficial economic cooperation across the entire range of current problems.

1. International institutions and associations in the Eurasian space: general information

The dynamics of Eurasian integration represent a path from the inherited commonality of the Soviet and post-imperial space to the formation of new institutions of cooperation based on the principles of mutual benefit, trust and solidary development. Modern international associations of Central Eurasia did not arise out of nowhere - their origins go back to the common economic, infrastructural and cultural space formed in the 20th century. However, today integration processes are acquiring a different quality: they are aimed not only at restoring lost ties, but also at creating new forms of collective action that ensure sustainable, inclusive and mutually beneficial development of the region. In this context, the historical heritage becomes not so much a memory of the past, but rather the basis for building a united future of Eurasia.

Historical context of the formation of integration processes

The formation of modern international institutions in the Eurasian space is inextricably linked with its common historical and political heritage. The vast territory, united within the framework of the Russian Empire and then the Soviet Union, has been a single economic, infrastructural and humanitarian space for centuries. This legacy led to close ties between the former Soviet republics after the collapse of the USSR in 1991.

The process of integration in the Eurasian space, initiated in a geopolitical vacuum, reflects the complex search for a balance between sovereignty and the objective need to maintain close ties in the space of Central Eurasia.

Among the initial integration drivers are:

§ Economic ties: The deep economic interdependence inherited from the Soviet planned economy (unified production chains, energy infrastructure, enterprise cooperation) made the restoration of economic ties a vital necessity to overcome the crisis of the 1990s.

§ Common infrastructure: A unified transport network, energy supply and communication systems objectively required cooperation for their effective functioning.

§ Security issues: The emergence of new borders, potential regional conflicts and common threats (such as organized crime, terrorism) stimulated the search for collective security mechanisms.

§ Humanitarian space: The common Russian language as a language of interethnic communication, similar educational systems, cultural and family ties, as well as large-scale migration flows created a social basis for reintegration processes.

The historical context of the collapse of the USSR predetermined the formation of a system of multilateral institutions in the Eurasian space. Initially emerging as a response to systemic crises, they have evolved from amorphous forms of declarative cooperation to more structured integration.

Conceptually, the focus has shifted from managing the legacy of the past to designing the future, which is reflected in the concept of the Greater Eurasian Partnership put forward in the 2010s.

In the current conditions, the future of the Eurasian associations of Central Eurasia will be determined by their ability to become not just instruments of post-Soviet adaptation, but competitive and sustainable projects offering mutually beneficial development models.

Basic principles, goals and objectives of integration associations

Over the past 30 years, a complex multi-level architecture of regional integration has formed in the space of Central Eurasia, represented by several key associations with varying degrees of integration depth and functional specialization.

The key integration structures of the Eurasian space - the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) - despite the common strategic vector of development of Eurasian integration, are characterized by their own set of principles, tactical tasks and functional responsibilities.

The Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) focuses on creating a deeply integrated economic space. According to the Treaty on the EAEU of May 29, 2014, its key goal is to ensure the “four freedoms” - the free movement of goods, services, capital and labor (Article 4 of the Treaty). The strategic goal is to create a Greater Eurasian Partnership through interaction with other regional associations.

The activities of the Union are based on the principles of sovereign equality and territorial integrity of the member states, mutual respect and consideration of national interests, compliance with international law, market economy and fair competition (Article 3 of the Treaty).

By its nature, the EAEU belongs to an open integration model, since it directly provides for interaction with third countries and international organizations (Article 7 of the Treaty).

The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), according to the Charter of January 22, 1993, maintains a model of multidisciplinary cooperation. It covers the political, economic, environmental and humanitarian spheres (Article 2 of the Charter). Economic objectives include the creation of a free trade zone and a common economic space.

The basic principles of the CIS include: sovereign equality of states, non-interference in internal affairs, renunciation of the use of force or threat of force, respect for human rights and the rule of international law, voluntary participation and peaceful resolution of disputes.

This organization operates within an open integration model. It does not imply supranational structures and allows for flexible participation of states.

The Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) focuses on military-political security. Based on the Charter of October 7, 2002, its main goal is to ensure collective defense against armed aggression (Article 3 of the Charter). The organization coordinates military-political cooperation, counters international terrorism and extremism, creates collective forces and develops a regional security system.

The CSTO operates in accordance with the principles of the priority of political means over military means in resolving conflicts, respect for the independence and sovereignty of member states, non-interference in internal affairs and compliance with international law.

The organization is aimed at forming a system of collective security and can be classified as an open model of integration, since, despite the military-political specifics, it interacts with international and regional structures (UN, OSCE, SCO), and is open to the entry of new participants and the development of partnerships in the field of security, which is reflected in its Charter.

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), according to the Charter of June 7, 2002, combines security functions with multilateral cooperation (Article 1). It strengthens mutual trust and good neighborliness, jointly ensures regional stability and creates conditions for trade and economic cooperation. The key task is to fight the “three forces of evil” - terrorism, separatism and extremism, for which the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS SCO) was created.

The basic principles of the SCO, enshrined in the Charter, form the so-called “Shanghai spirit”: mutual trust, mutual benefit, equality, respect for cultural diversity, the desire for common development, rejection of bloc thinking and confrontation, as well as openness and transparency.

According to its characteristics, the SCO belongs to an open integration model, since it is not directed against third countries and is actively developing partnerships with other international organizations.

Tab. 1 Principles, goals and objectives of key integration associations in Central Eurasia

Eurasian integration associations form a mutually complementary system, where the EAEU provides economic integration, the CSTO provides military-political security, the SCO provides multi-format cooperation on the scale of the Eurasian continent, and the CIS provides flexible interaction in a wide range of areas.

The comparative table (Table 1) given in the Review allows us to identify a system of common strategic directions uniting key integration associations of the Eurasian space. Despite differences in the depth of integration and functional specialization, all organizations demonstrate unity in basic development guidelines.

Ensuring regional stability and security is a fundamental task for all associations. While the CSTO and SCO emphasize the military-political component and the fight against terrorism, the EAEU and the CIS provide economic stability as the basis for security.

Creating conditions for sustainable economic development is a cross-cutting task. All associations are working to varying degrees on the formation of common markets, the elimination of trade barriers and the development of transport and logistics infrastructure.

Improving the quality of life of the population through the development of humanitarian cooperation, educational programs and cultural exchange is on the agenda of each association, which is reflected in their statutory documents.

Thus, behind the external diversity of integration associations, a unified system of practical tasks can be traced, consistently implemented within the framework of Eurasian cooperation. These tasks form a general program of action aimed at the comprehensive development of the region.

Common integration tasks include:

>  Formation of free trade zones and common economic space;

>  Coordination of sectoral policies in industry, agriculture and transport;

> Creating mechanisms for collective security and countering modern challenges;

>  Development of the legal framework for interstate interaction;

>  Stimulating scientific and technological cooperation and digital transformation.

All integration associations demonstrate similarities in their basic operating principles, based on the sovereign equality of states, voluntary participation, non-interference in internal affairs, peaceful settlement of disputes, mutual benefit and respect for national interests. These principles, enshrined in the statutory documents of the EAEU, CIS, CSTO and SCO, form a single value-legal field of Eurasian integration. It is important to note that all organizations implement an open integration model focused on cooperation with external partners and international institutions. Such openness ensures flexibility of interaction, contributes to the formation of a coherent system of regional institutions and strengthens the role of Central Eurasia as an area of ​​constructive interstate cooperation aimed at ensuring sustainable development, security and well-being of the peoples of the region.

2. Integration dimensions

2.1. Financial and economic cooperation

Greater Eurasia is considered as a dynamically developing region, where integration processes are formed, among other things, by the practices of financial and economic interaction: the interface of infrastructure and logistics, the unification of regular regimes and customs administration, the development of joint project financing and settlements in national currencies, as well as the coordination of macroeconomic policies.

The institutional framework for the financial and economic dimension of integration is provided by the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and related formats, including the Belt and Road Initiative and the BRICS mechanisms. The concept of the Greater Eurasian Partnership guides the strategic integration of these formats, providing the basis for the formation of a common economic space of stability and growth.

Mechanisms to ensure economic and financial stability

The system of collective economic sustainability in Greater Eurasia relies on multilateral monitoring and consultation on macroeconomic policies. Within the framework of integration formats, procedures for comparing key indicators (inflation, budget deficit, public debt), regular consultations of economic policy bodies and exchange of statistical accounting methodology are being developed. These practices ensure early identification of imbalances, shape the contours of coordination of response measures, and increase the comparability of economic data for participants in regional cooperation.

Stabilization instruments are aimed at maintaining liquidity, smoothing out external shocks and financing stabilization programs, as well as supporting structural and institutional reforms. The following are used as basic solutions:

• stabilization institutions, to finance balance of payments support programs and/or government budgets, as well as structural and institutional reforms. Among such institutions in the region are the International Monetary Fund and the Eurasian Fund for Stabilization and Development;

• bilateral and multilateral currency swap lines between central (national) banks to ensure settlements and reduce volatility; as a multilateral mechanism based on swap agreements, we can mention the BRICS Contingent Foreign Exchange Reserve Pool;

• guarantees of export credit agencies and insurance instruments to reduce transaction and country risks.

Harmonization of legislation reduces regulatory uncertainty and transaction costs for businesses and investors. Technical regulations and customs administration procedures are being unified, competition policy and digital data exchange standards are being harmonized; The legal and infrastructural foundations of common markets for electricity, gas, oil and petroleum products are being developed, as well as elements of a common financial market (bringing together requirements for licensing and supervision, developing clearing and settlement infrastructure and cross-border payment mechanisms). These measures ensure predictability of the business environment and interoperability of national economies within Greater Eurasia.

Joint financial institutions

Multilateral development banks and stabilization funds of Greater Eurasia act as an applied integration tool: they combine sources of long-term capital and direct them to cross-border projects according to uniform rules, providing a full cycle - from determining priorities and preparing a list of projects to examination, concluding agreements, financing and subsequent monitoring. Forms of support are used in the form of project and program lending, sovereign and subsovereign loans, guarantees of participation in joint transactions, including the placement of bonds in national currencies and co-financing. Procedures are unified through agreed requirements for procurement, environmental and social standards, information disclosure and standard documentation, as well as through the coordination of supervisory approaches and the interface of payment, settlement and clearing infrastructure, which reduces the cost of capital and risks, increases the compatibility of regulatory practices and creates a reproducible model of interstate cooperation.

Tab. 2 Key multilateral financial institutions of Greater Eurasia

The Eurasian Fund for Stabilization and Development (EFSD) functions as a source of anti-crisis support and long-term project financing. The fund's tools include loans to maintain macroeconomic stability and investment loans for government development programs, which provide a framework for stabilization and structural modernization in vulnerable periods.

The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) is a multilateral development bank specializing in financing transport, energy, water, urban and digital infrastructure in Asia and neighboring regions. The Bank provides sovereign and sub-sovereign loans and participates in co-financing with international and national institutions. The AIIB's activities are focused on enhancing connectivity, eliminating infrastructure constraints and supporting sustainable economic growth.

The SCO Development Bank has been created within the SCO as a specialized institution for financing infrastructure, industrial and logistics projects in Central Eurasia. Its instruments are linked with the mechanisms of the SCO Interbank Association and national development institutions. The work of the SCO Development Bank provides for the unification of the procedure for selecting and examining projects, the application of agreed requirements for environmental and social standards, as well as the use of co-financing for large cross-border initiatives.

The BRICS New Development Bank operates as a multilateral development bank with a focus on infrastructure and sustainable development. The toolkit includes sovereign and sub-sovereign loans, credit lines for financial institutions, participation in transactions, as well as placement of bonds in the national currencies of participating countries. The Bank builds uniform rules for project preparation, coordinates approaches to information disclosure and risk management, and actively uses co-financing with national and multilateral banks to support transport, energy, water and digital projects.

The BRICS pool of contingent currency reserves forms a liquidity safety net in the event of balance of payments tensions. The mechanism provides for the provision of short-term foreign exchange support along agreed lines with pre-established conditions of access and monitoring, as well as linking individual volumes with the programs of international financial organizations. The use of the Pool reduces the risk of shocks spreading, maintains the stability of settlements and strengthens the confidence of market participants in the integration financial architecture of Greater Eurasia.

Cooperation between central banks of the region

Payments in national currencies are considered as a tool for reducing currency risks and transaction costs in mutual trade. Within the framework of the EAEU and bilateral agreements of the countries of the region, the use of national currencies in the supply of goods and services is expanding, clearing infrastructure and interaction of payment systems are being developed, which ensures the stability of settlements in the event of external fluctuations.

The interaction of central (national) banks is implemented through memorandums of cooperation, working groups and advisory formats on monetary policy, payment systems and financial stability. Coordination of approaches to the settlement of financial market participants and the development of mechanisms for operational liquidity support, including swap lines, are practiced.

The formation of common financial markets in Central Eurasia involves harmonization of regulation, convergence of requirements for licensing and supervision, as well as the development of cross-border infrastructure for trading in financial instruments and settlements. These measures create legal conditions for the free movement of capital in the prescribed manner and deepen the integration of financial services.

Joint projects in the fields of energy, industry and infrastructure

Joint energy, industrial and infrastructure projects serve as a key tool for the practical rapprochement of economies in the Greater Eurasia space: a jointly used physical infrastructure is created, sustainable flows of resources and goods are ensured, interregional transport corridors and logistics hubs are formed, technical requirements and procurement procedures are unified, industrial cooperation and localization of production are developed, access to long-term financing through multilateral development banks and national institutions is activated, decreases transaction costs and supply chain risks, and the compatibility of regulatory practices and operational standards is strengthened, which strengthens economic ties and increases the functional connectivity of the region.

Tab. 3 Large joint projects in Greater Eurasia

Integration in the Greater Eurasia space, among other things, is materialized through large energy, transport, logistics and industrial projects that ensure sustainable supplies of resources, increase the capacity of corridors and localize production. In the energy sector, main gas pipelines and liquefied natural gas projects play a key role: the Power of Siberia gas pipeline connects the fields of Eastern Siberia with consumers in China, the Central Asia - China system (Lines A-C) transports gas from Turkmenistan through Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan to the PRC, an international project in Yamal with the export of LNG to Asian and European markets, including port and icebreaker infrastructure. Cooperation in the electric power and nuclear industries is being strengthened through the construction and modernization of generating capacities, as well as intersystem flows.

Transport and logistics initiatives form the framework of land-sea connectivity. The international transport corridor “Western Europe – Western China” provides for a highway of over eight thousand kilometers connecting Chinese industrial centers with Central Asia and Eastern Europe. The North-South corridor combines railway, road and sea sections with a length of about seven thousand two hundred kilometers, with key nodes in the Caspian and Iranian ports and priority completion of the railway connection on the Rasht-Astara section. The Trans-Caspian International Route, or the so-called “Middle Corridor”, connects China with Europe through Kazakhstan, the Caspian Sea, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey; the structure includes railway lines, ferry lines along the Caspian Sea and the Baku-Tbilisi-Kars railway. At the junction of land and sea routes, transshipment infrastructure, multimodal terminals and digital cargo tracking systems are being developed.

Logistics hubs and dry ports provide track connections and speed up the turnover of containers. The dry port "Khorgos - Eastern Gate" on the border of China and Kazakhstan performs the functions of transshipment and customs processing, servicing transit container services from China to Europe. Complexes are being developed in the Caspian ports of Aktau and Kuryk, in the Azerbaijani Alyat, as well as joint terminals on the coasts of the East China and Sea of ​​Japan, providing a link between sea and railway flows.

Industrial cooperation is expressed in the creation of joint ventures and localization of critical components. In mechanical engineering, the production of rolling stock and components for railways, as well as the assembly of vehicles and agricultural machinery is expanding. In the petrochemical industry, projects are being implemented for the production of polymers and deep processing of hydrocarbons; in metallurgy – modernization of rolling capacities; in the digital sector - the introduction of industrial platforms for monitoring, transportation management and settlements.

Thus, multi-level financial and economic interaction in the Greater Eurasia space has formed a stable institutional and project basis for integration: monitoring and consultation mechanisms are in place, stabilization instruments and development banks are functioning, cross-border energy, transport and industrial projects are being implemented. The combination of these practices and institutions supports the formation of a common economic space and the development of ties within the region.

2.2. Political cooperation

Political cooperation in the space of Central Eurasia is understood as a set of institutionalized and informal mechanisms for coordinating foreign policy positions, coordination on security, economic and humanitarian issues, as well as developing joint decisions in multilateral and bilateral formats.

After the collapse of the USSR, the states of the region were faced with the need to build new mechanisms of interstate relations. The rejection of a unified center led to the need for institutional formats of political coordination that would allow positions to be coordinated without loss of sovereignty. Thus, integration in the political sphere has become a way to organize space without the dominance of one side, but at the same time maintain the ability to collectively represent common interests on the world stage.

Political cooperation acts not as a means of ideological consolidation, but as a mechanism of controllability and consistency, allowing countries to maintain flexibility but act in a single direction. It is consolidated in the form of treaties, charters, joint declarations and regular meetings, creating a system of political communication.

This system finds its concrete embodiment in integration processes characterized by:

§ Multi-level: from summits of heads of state to working groups of experts and public forums.

§ Multilateralism: the coexistence of several organizations and initiatives (CIS, CSTO, EAEU, SCO, BRICS, CICA, GUAM, etc.) with partial overlap of membership.

§ Multi-vector: parallel involvement of states in global and regional platforms (UN, BRICS, APEC, OSCE), as well as in the dialogue “C5+” (Central Asia plus external partners).

Political cooperation in the context of Greater Eurasia is a desire not only for convergence of approaches - gradual rapprochement on issues affecting the interests of all participants - but also for the institutionalization of ideas of solidarity development, which are mentioned in the concept of the Greater Eurasian Partnership. It is implemented through the interface and coordination of such initiatives and platforms as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building Measures in Asia (CICA), BRICS+, the Group of Twenty (G20), the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, the New BRICS Development Bank, the Belt and Road Initiative, as well as through the C5+ dialogue formats with the participation of Russia, the EU, China, India, Japan and the Gulf countries. These associations form a multi-level network of cooperation covering issues of trade, infrastructure, energy, security, digital transformation and humanitarian exchange.

The combination of these formats creates the basis for the establishment of Greater Eurasia as an open model of evolutionary partnership - a flexible and inclusive system that unites the states of the continent on the principles of mutual benefit, equality and respect for sovereignty. In this system, economic pragmatics, joint security and humanitarian cooperation become complementary elements that ensure the formation of a single space of interaction and sustainable development from Lisbon to Jakarta.

Formats of political cooperation

The system of political cooperation in the Eurasian space is based on an extensive network of institutions, regular meetings and dialogue platforms.

Tab. 4 Main formats of political interaction in the Eurasian space

The highest level of integration architecture plays a key role. Regular summits of heads of state serve as the main instrument for political management of inertial processes. They approve declarations and communiqués that record agreed positions on issues of world politics and regional structure. Thus, SCO summits traditionally end with declarations reflecting common approaches to international relations, the principles of multilateralism and equal cooperation. In turn, the Council of Heads of State of the CIS acts as a traditional platform for developing consensus decisions between countries connected by institutional heritage. In addition, the Supreme Eurasian Economic Council gives integration in the Greater Eurasian space an economic orientation. The CSTO Collective Security Council, although focused primarily on military-political security, actually serves as a political forum for coordinating positions on current issues of international law and cooperation with external partners.

At the next level, governmental and parliamentary, the operationalization of political decisions reached at the highest level is ensured. In particular, at the Council of Foreign Ministers of the CIS, joint approaches to interaction with third countries and international organizations are discussed and developed. Similar tasks are solved by the SCO Council of Foreign Ministers, which coordinates the preparation of summits and develops draft joint statements. At the parliamentary level, political cooperation takes the form of interparliamentary dialogue. Structures such as the CIS Interparliamentary Assembly or the CSTO Parliamentary Assembly contribute to the formation of a common political culture of coordination and exchange of experience, which strengthens mutual trust and forms the institutional basis for political compatibility.

Of particular importance in this system are expert and dialogue platforms that complement the official track of “first diplomacy”. For example, the SCO Forum brings together research centers of the participating countries, providing analytical support and expertise for decisions taken at the summits. The Eurasian Economic Forum, despite its predominantly economic orientation, also serves as an informal platform for political consultations, where strategic directions of interstate coordination are discussed. Through such formats, there is a “soft coordination” of political positions, the formation of a single conceptual discourse and the exchange of arguments between elites, which creates an intellectual and communicative foundation for further political rapprochement.

Documents and political initiatives

The political dimension of integration is enshrined in a system of international treaties, charters and declarations that define the principles and goals of cooperation.

The key acts were:

> The Agreement on the Creation of the CIS (1991) is the first attempt to institutionalize political ties between independent states in the Greater Eurasia space.

> Collective Security Treaty (1992) - laid the foundation for the formation of a military-political union (CSTO), defining mechanisms for a joint response to security challenges.

> The SCO Charter (2002) is a document that established the principles of political dialogue and consensus, as well as the structure of the organization, which has become a key dialogue platform in Asia.

> BRICS founding documents (2009-2014) – formalization of political coordination of the countries-global centers of Eurasia, aimed at forming a more multipolar system of international relations.

> The Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union (2014) is an example of a combination of economic and political integration within collegial bodies, where decisions on the common market directly affect the political coordination of member states.

These documents reflect the desire of the countries of the region to create a controlled political space where decisions are made based on negotiations and not under forceful pressure.

Interactions within the framework of the global international associations BRICS and the UN

The states of Central Eurasia actively use global international associations, such as the UN and BRICS, to coordinate their foreign policy efforts and promote a common agenda. Collective representation allows them to more effectively communicate what they agree on key issues, such as global governance reform for greater participation of developing and least developed countries, especially from Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, sustainable development and the formation of a multipolar international security architecture, which strengthens the bargaining power of each of the participants.

Their interaction is concretely embodied in the expansion of the BRICS format, where since January 2025 Belarus, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan received the status of partner countries, which allows them to participate in summits and in the preparation of association documents. An important milestone was the adoption at the Rio de Janeiro Summit of the “Declaration on Strengthening Cooperation of the Global South”, containing agreed political and economic guidelines, including a commitment to sovereign equality, support for UN reforms to ensure equitable geographical representation, as well as deepening cooperation in the areas of security, finance and cultural and humanitarian ties.

In parallel, at the UN, coordination of positions occurs through institutional mechanisms - the secretariats of the SCO, CIS and CSTO, which have observer status, which allows the states of the region to act in a coordinated manner on issues of reforming global institutions and uphold the principles of multipolarity.

Thus, in 2025, on the sidelines of the 80th session of the UN General Assembly in New York, the foreign ministers of the CSTO countries held a meeting where they discussed the coordination of joint initiatives in the field of security. Particular attention was paid to the initiative of Belarus and Russia to develop the Eurasian Charter for Diversity and Multipolarity, which enshrines the principles of equality and indivisible security. On September 28, 2025, a statement was published by the foreign ministers of the CSTO member states on the occasion of the 80th anniversary of the establishment of the UN. The statement reaffirmed commitment to the principles of the UN Charter and international cooperation on the basis of equal and indivisible security, supported the idea of ​​strengthening the central role of the UN in international affairs, and expressed the need to jointly reduce international tension and ensure stability.

The use of dialogue in the UN and BRICS formats as platforms for meetings and joint statements demonstrates the desire to achieve specific foreign policy results through consolidation: from jointly advocating the need for reform of the UN Security Council to coordinating votes on General Assembly resolutions.

2.3. Security and countering challenges and threats

Security integration in Central Eurasia has become one of the key areas. The absence of a single decision-making center and new threats - transnational terrorism, extremism, cyber attacks, illicit arms and drug trafficking - required the creation of coordinated collective response mechanisms.

Security as an integration dimension unites the efforts of states to maintain stability, build trust and develop common norms of behavior. Unlike economic or political interaction, coordination here is of an operational and institutional nature, including joint exercises, intelligence exchange, and the creation of regular centers and specialized structures.

The military dimension of Eurasian integration solves several problems:

§ preventing conflicts and strengthening trust between neighbors;

§ development of common approaches to responding to threats;

§ creation of collective security mechanisms;

§ institutionalization of intelligence exchange;

§ development of joint training of military and security forces.

Military cooperation and joint exercises

The system of joint exercises that has developed in Central Eurasia is a ramified mechanism that covers almost all aspects of modern security. This mechanism is characterized by regularity, diversity (covering operational-tactical, anti-terrorism, peacekeeping, logistics and cyber exercises) and complexity, when individual exercises are stages of a single operational plan.

Table 5 Joint exercises and training in the field of security in Central Eurasia

The practice of conducting joint maneuvers gives rise to a number of significant integration effects. The most important of these is ensuring interoperability. By unifying control, communications, identification and supply procedures, common tactical standards are developed, which is critical for the effective use of multinational groups. In addition, regular interaction between command structures and personnel leads to the formation of a common operational space and strategic culture, breaking down barriers of mistrust and creating a common field for assessing threats.

The effect of institutionalization of cooperation is no less important. The exercises are not only a product, but also a driver for the development of the institutional framework, stimulating the creation of permanent working bodies - joint headquarters and coordination centers. Finally, large-scale maneuvers serve the function of demonstrating solidarity and political unity, demonstrating the unity and readiness of participants for collective action.

Coordination in the fight against challenges and threats

Joint operations and preventive measures form the practical core of security integration in the Eurasian space. Unlike military exercises aimed at practicing combat interaction and hypothetical scenarios, these mechanisms represent regular, planned work to counter real transnational threats. It is in this area that integration acquires the most tangible, operational and effective character, creating a dense fabric of interaction between law enforcement agencies, intelligence services and other competent structures of the states of the region.

Tab. 6 Joint operations, coordination activities and preventive actions in the space of Central Eurasia

The central place in the system of countering challenges and threats in the Eurasian space is occupied by joint special operations of a comprehensive interdepartmental nature. A striking example is the long-term anti-drug operations “Channel”, carried out in the format of the CIS and CSTO. Their content goes beyond one-time raids, representing coordinated activities to block transit routes, seize precursors, identify drug networks and undermine the financial channels of the drug business. A similar role in the anti-terrorist sphere is played by the annual comprehensive operational activities initiated by the SCO Regional Anti-Terrorism Structure. They are aimed at dismantling terrorist cells, tracking down participants and cutting off funding channels, demonstrating a high level of trust and interoperability among intelligence agencies.

In parallel with force actions, a wide range of coordination measures are being implemented to ensure strategic and tactical unity of action. These include regular meetings of heads of security agencies and intelligence services within the CIS, as well as annual meetings of ministers of internal affairs and meetings of heads of intelligence services in the SCO format. At these sites, joint plans are agreed upon, lists of wanted persons are approved, and common methods of counteraction are developed. At another level, formats such as the SCO Cyber ​​Council or coordination meetings on cybersecurity of the EAEU operate, where the focus is shifted to expert exchange of data on cyber threats and harmonization of approaches to protecting critical information infrastructure.

Of particular importance are preventive actions aimed at preventing and suppressing illegal activities in the early stages. Operational and preventive measures carried out under the auspices of the CIS and CSTO are focused on identifying individuals involved in extremist activities and cutting off recruitment and financing channels.

Thus, security in the space of Central Eurasia has emerged as an integration dimension, representing not just a set of disparate institutions, but an integral multi-level architecture of collective response. The system created over three decades, including the CSTO, CIS, SCO and elements of the EAEU, demonstrates a high degree of institutionalization and practice-oriented nature. Through regular joint exercises, coordinated operations and permanent coordination structures, the states of the region have developed mechanisms for operational cooperation to counter the entire range of modern challenges - from military threats and terrorism to cybercrime and drug trafficking.

This architecture, based on voluntariness and consensus, made it possible to combine collective security with the preservation of the national sovereignty of the participants. Military security has become not only a guarantor of stability, but also a functional core that provides the basis for deeper political and economic consolidation in the post-Soviet space, turning it into a self-regulating region capable of effectively confronting the challenges of the 21st century.

2.4. Scientific cooperation

Scientific cooperation between the countries of Central Eurasia is a significant area of regional integration. It is based on common research traditions established during the Soviet period and is aimed at strengthening the technical and innovative potential of the region.

The field of science and technology turned out to be the least susceptible to political fragmentation, which allowed the preservation of a significant part of professional contacts, academic schools and research infrastructure. Scientific interaction has become not only a tool for knowledge exchange, but also an important integration mechanism that builds trust, supports cooperation and ensures joint participation in the innovative and technological development of the region.

Official documents, including the Concept of International Scientific and Technical Cooperation of the Russian Federation (approved in 2025), emphasize that international scientific cooperation should be built on the principles of mutual benefit, equality and free exchange of knowledge. They pay special attention to maintaining stable ties with the countries of Central Eurasia.

Joint scientific projects and research

Joint scientific activities of the countries of Central Eurasia are concentrated mainly in the natural sciences - physics, chemistry, materials science, biology and engineering. It is these areas that form the basis of publication cooperation. According to Web of Science, the share of joint publications by countries in the region is about 3.1% of the global flow, of which approximately 79% are by Russian authors. The closest interaction is observed between Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan. At the same time, the average share of joint publications with the participation of two or more countries in the region is 10-12%.

Examples of collaboration include joint projects in nanomaterials research, radiation physics, energy technology, geophysics and astronomy. National science foundations make a significant contribution to the implementation of programs. Thus, the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR) provided funding for about 23-25% of joint publications between Russia and Ukraine until 2015. In recent years, the Russian Science Foundation (RSF), the Innovation Promotion Fund, as well as relevant ministries and academies of sciences of the countries of the region have been actively involved in financing. In addition, within the framework of the Interstate Council for Scientific and Technical Cooperation, coordinated programs are being implemented in priority areas of fundamental and applied research.

Joint scientific projects in the Eurasian space form common research and technological fields. They contribute to the unification of scientific schools, strengthen the human resources and infrastructure potential of the region, and also ensure joint participation in the development of new ones. technology and innovation. Of particular importance are programs supported by national foundations and interstate institutions of the CIS, which create a stable basis for financing joint research. The implementation of such initiatives helps strengthen mutual trust between scientific communities, increases the international visibility of research results and turns science into one of the most effective tools for the integration of post-Soviet countries.

Exchange of scientific personnel and academic programs

Academic mobility in the space of Central Eurasia is one of the most stable and institutionalized forms of scientific integration. Its development is due to the historical continuity of academic schools, the unity of educational standards and the preservation of the Russian language as the language of scientific communication.

Tab. 7 Cumulative number of students from Central Eurasian countries studying in other countries in the region (2023/2024)

Mobility within the Eurasian space is based on bilateral and multilateral agreements concluded between the countries of the region.

The central coordination mechanism is the Council for Cooperation in the Field of Basic Science of the CIS, which oversees the development of common standards for training scientific personnel, coordination of priority areas of research and the organization of internship programs. The Council forms lists of basic organizations responsible for coordinating scientific and educational activities in certain fields of knowledge. Among them are the Physics Institute named after P. N. Lebedev (Russia) and the Physico-Technical Institute named after S. U. Umarov (Tajikistan), on the basis of which internships for graduate students, exchange of teachers and scientific schools in physical and technical disciplines are implemented. These centers serve as “supporting platforms” for the CIS, helping to maintain a single educational space and improve the skills of young researchers.

The development of mobility is also supported through interuniversity formats. The Eurasian Association of Universities (EAU) unites more than 40 leading universities in the region and coordinates network master's and postgraduate programs. Since 2018, academic exchanges, short-term internships and joint scientific seminars have been annually held within the framework of the EAU, in which young researchers from Armenia, Kazakhstan, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan and Russia participate. In addition, bilateral agreements on academic exchanges and mutual recognition of educational documents operate at the government level, which facilitates the movement of scientific personnel.

A special place in the system of regional mobility is occupied by the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR, Dubna), in which almost all states of the post-Soviet space are represented. The Institute implements annual research internship programs, advanced training courses and summer schools in nuclear physics, materials science and computing technologies. In recent years alone, hundreds of young scientists from Kazakhstan, Armenia, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan and Moldova have taken part in JINR programs.

In general, there are trends towards the institutionalization of academic exchanges and increased participation of Central Eurasian countries in joint training programs, postgraduate studies and internships. The role of interuniversity networks, basic organizations and international research centers is strengthening, ensuring regular interaction between researchers and teachers. The increase in the exchange of scientific personnel is accompanied by an increase in the number of multilateral educational initiatives and strengthening of the cooperation infrastructure, which contributes to the formation of a unified scientific and educational space and the reproduction of the region’s human resources potential.

Creation of joint research centers and laboratories

The formation of joint scientific centers and laboratories became the foundation for the institutionalization of scientific cooperation in the space of Central Eurasia. These structures perform a dual function: on the one hand, they serve as tools for combining material, technical and human resources, and on the other, they become platforms for developing common research directions. Joint centers create stable horizontal connections between the scientific communities of the countries of the region, ensuring cooperation in areas where no single country has a full cycle of competencies or infrastructure.

Joint laboratories and centers are often formed within the framework of intergovernmental agreements or under the auspices of the Council for Cooperation in the Field of Basic Science of the CIS. Their activities cover fundamental research, innovative developments, training and organization of network educational programs.

Tab. 8 Examples of joint research centers and programs in Central Eurasia

Joint centers and laboratories operate primarily in two institutional formats. The first model is integration structures on the territory of Russia, to which international access is provided (JINR, Center for Collective Use, SibISTC). The second is bilateral or multilateral university centers created on a parity basis (Belarusian-Russian University, Russian-Armenian University).

Thus, the Interstate Program for Innovative Cooperation of the CIS (2011-2030), which defines the general principles of interaction in the field of technology transfer, the creation of joint venture structures and support for start-ups based on scientific organizations. The program forms a unified system of priorities for innovative development, which makes it an element of integration not only in the field of science, but also in the technological economy.

Joint laboratories and research sites demonstrate the region’s ability to build “network integration” - without creating supranational structures, but through mutual recognition of statuses, resources and standards. In a broader aspect, the integration role of science is manifested in the ability to unite the states of the region around common goals and priorities. Despite differences in the level of development and resource capabilities, joint activities in the field of fundamental and applied research create a platform for strengthening trust and long-term partnership. Taken together, this makes it possible to preserve the Eurasian space as a single field of knowledge and innovation, capable of self-sustaining development and participation in the global scientific economy.

Central Eurasia, being the core of Greater Eurasia, forms the basis for broader integration processes across the continent. Its position determines the strategic importance of the region as a link between Europe, Asia and the Middle East. In the context of the formation of Greater Eurasia, the development of networks of scientific and expert interaction is of particular importance. The think tank dialogue is becoming a sustainable platform for exchanging research results and developing coordinated approaches to regional development.

At the BRICS+ summit in Kazan in October 2025, Chinese President Xi Jinping announced the creation of the Global South Think Tanks Alliance, uniting more than a hundred research institutes from Asia, Africa, Latin America and Oceania. The initiative is aimed at developing academic exchange, joint research and creating an intellectual basis for multipolar cooperation.

An additional area of integration is the activities of the Consortium of Economic Think Tanks of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), which ensures coordination of research in the field of macroeconomics, trade, investment and digital transformation. The inclusion of analytical structures of Central Eurasia in these international formats helps to strengthen its role as the intellectual and institutional core of Greater Eurasia, as well as the expansion of scientific and expert interaction in the space from Europe to the Pacific Ocean.

2.5. Other significant forms of cooperation

Cultural and humanitarian interaction

The cultural component is a connecting resource for integration in the space of Central Eurasia. The joint historical and cultural heritage of the Soviet period ensures a high level of mutual understanding between societies and elites. The central element of intercultural communication is the Russian language, which retains the dominant role as an interethnic means of communication in most countries in the region and serves as an infrastructure for media, business and tourist interaction. As of September 2025, Russian is spoken by more than 255 million people; the language is represented in 66 countries around the world, which supports cross-border circulation of content and facilitates the implementation of multilateral cultural initiatives.

Cultural integration in the Eurasian post-Soviet has a two-circuit architecture: the program circuit of the CIS (the Council for Humanitarian Cooperation and the Interstate Fund for Humanitarian Cooperation, established in 2006) and the regulatory circuit of the EAEU, affecting audiovisual and digital services. This combination of “events” and “market rules” ensures compatibility of institutions, predictability of distribution and a sustainable event agenda (biennial plans for priority humanitarian activities, thematic years, “Commonwealth Capitals of Culture”, awards and forums).

Within the CIS there are multilateral agreements on culture, cinematography, book publishing and museums; The specialized Council for Cultural Cooperation holds regular meetings, which ensures sustainable coordination at the ministerial level. The interstate program “cultural capitals of the Commonwealth” establishes a rotation mechanism for the concentration of festivals and tours: for 2025-2027. statuses were assigned to Lachin (Azerbaijan), Meghri (Armenia) and Molodechno (Belarus). Annual forums of creative and scientific intelligentsia form a permanent communication platform where the “Stars of the Commonwealth” and “Commonwealth of Debuts” awards are awarded. Since 2006, the IFHS has supported over 1,100 projects, which reflects the scale of intercountry cooperation in the humanitarian field.

The regulatory environment of the EAEU reduces transaction barriers for cross-border distribution of cultural products. Recommendation of the EEC Board No. 27 dated November 21, 2017 establishes general approaches to protecting consumer rights during the distance sale of goods/services (including via the Internet, television and radio), which is critical for the platform distribution of films and music. This document is the first international act of the Union that systematically describes consumer protection for any distance purchases. At the same time, compatible registries and databases are being formed for digital exchange in related areas, which facilitates the operation of cross-border services.

Cultural integration acts as a “soft frame” for Central Eurasia: the regulatory formats of the CIS support common symbols and practices, and the norms of the EAEU create a predictable environment for cross-border distribution of content and joint releases. Taken together, this reduces the institutional costs of humanitarian interaction and strengthens multilateral communication channels.

Joint initiatives in the field of ecology and environmental protection

Environmental cooperation integrates countries through common standards for hazardous waste management, climate change positions, and joint projects for the remediation of man-made sites. This reduces cross-border risks, promotes regulatory compatibility and supports coordination in international conventions.

In 2024, the CIS approved the Concept of Cooperation on Hazardous Waste and the Plan of Priority Actions for 2024-2029, formalizing common approaches to eliminating accumulated environmental damage. In 2022, the Statement of the CIS Heads of State on cooperation in the climate sector was adopted, confirming the coordination of positions on climate change. Practical areas of cooperation include the interstate program for the reclamation of uranium sites (implementation since 2012), where joint financing and unified safety standards make it possible to reduce the toxic legacy of the mining industry.

In addition to the institutional framework, over the past decades, the CIS has developed an extensive legal framework that ensures sustainable interaction between countries in the environmental sphere. The key documents were the Agreement on Cooperation in the Field of Ecology and Environmental Protection (February 8, 1992) and the updated Agreement on Cooperation in the Field of Environmental Protection (May 31, 2013), in accordance with which the Interstate Environmental Council of the CIS was created. This body coordinates state policies in the field of ecology, prepares recommendations for the harmonization of national standards, promotes the implementation of interstate programs and the development of an environmental monitoring system. Also important are the Agreement on the Red Book (1995), the Agreement on the basic principles of interaction on transboundary water bodies (1998) and the Agreement on information cooperation in the field of ecology (1998), which form the legal framework for joint management of natural resources and data exchange.

The practical implementation of environmental cooperation is expressed in transboundary initiatives and national programs aimed at preserving natural complexes and rational use of resources. These include the creation of specially protected natural areas and joint natural reserves - “Zapovednoye Poozerye” (Russia-Belarus), the transboundary biosphere reserve “Altai” (Kazakhstan-Russia), as well as the UNESCO World Heritage Site “Western Tien Shan” (Kazakhstan-Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan). A significant example of bilateral coordination was the exchange visit of the Joint Working Group of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan on environmental protection and water quality in the Syrdarya River basin (September 2024). In the strategic context, environmental integration is enshrined in the Concept for the further development of the CIS (2020) and the Economic Development Strategy until 2030, which provide for the introduction of environmentally friendly technologies, the development of economic mechanisms for environmental management, joint research on the state of the environment and the protection of water resources - which forms the long-term outline of “green integration” of the countries of the region.

Environmental initiatives create “practical interdependence” of Central Eurasia - they connect the countries of the region operationally and financially, and coordinated positions on climate and other aspects of the “green agenda” strengthen coordination on international platforms, reducing regulatory fragmentation in the field of environmental policy.

Transport infrastructure

Transport infrastructure forms the material basis for integration in the space of Central Eurasia. Its development ensures the connectivity of national economies, the competitiveness of transit routes and the sustainability of foreign economic relations in Eurasian logistics. In the 2020s, transport integration is shifting from simply connecting networks to creating a “Eurasian transport framework” - a system of interconnected multimodal corridors combining rail, road, sea and air routes.

In 2025, a set of measures is being implemented in the Eurasian space to develop and modernize transport arteries in order to increase the efficiency of cargo transportation and strengthen interstate ties.

1. Concept of development and interconnection of transport arteries of the CIS.

The document, prepared with the participation of Kazakhstan, Russia, Armenia, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, sets strategic principles for modernizing transport infrastructure, unifying standards, optimizing customs procedures and creating a single digital logistics space. The Concept serves as a framework document for aligning national programs with integration goals.

2. International Transport Corridor (ITC) “North – South”.

One of the flagship Eurasian projects, connecting Russia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Iran with India and the Gulf countries. The key nodes are Astrakhan, Anzeli, Rasht, Bandar Abbas, as well as the Astara (Azerbaijan) - Astara (Iran) and Qazvin - Rasht border crossings.

3. Central Asian and Trans-Caspian routes.

Against the backdrop of high load on the Trans-Siberian Railway, the development of alternative logistics directions is intensifying: the Central Asian multimodal route (China - Kyrgyzstan - Uzbekistan - Turkmenistan - Caspian - Caucasus - EU) and the Trans-Caspian international transport route (Middle Corridor). The latter unites the railway and sea sections of Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey.

4. Joint plan of the EEC and the Executive Committee of the CIS Coordination Transport Meeting until 2030.

The document defines the institutional framework for interaction in the field of transport and logistics, aimed at connecting the programs of the EAEU and the CIS, introducing intelligent transport systems (ITS) and digitalization of documents.

5. Digitalization program for CIS transport corridors.

Approved in 2024 and provides for the introduction of electronic cargo tracking systems, smart checkpoints, electronic consignment notes (e-CMR) and a single digital carrier account. Digitalization should increase the efficiency and transparency of logistics, as well as reduce transportation administration costs by 15-20%.

7. Transport corridor "East - West".

Provides a connection between Asia and Europe, passing through the territory of Russia, Kazakhstan and other countries. It connects railway and sea routes, including the Trans-Siberian and Baikal-Amur Railways, and plays a key role in the delivery of goods from China to Europe. After 2022, the importance of the corridor for Russia has increased due to the reorientation of trade to the East, and its development is hampered by a shortage of carrying capacity, which is planned to be eliminated by 2032.

8. Economic corridor China - Mongolia - Russia.

Created as part of the One Belt, One Road initiative, this corridor connects the northern regions of China, Mongolia and Russia. The main directions pass through the railway routes Eren-Khoto - Zamyn-Uud - Ulaanbaatar - Naushki - Ulan-Ude and the Gashuun-Sukhait - Altanbulag highways. The project is aimed at developing cross-border logistics, building industrial parks and increasing the capacity of checkpoints. The implementation of the corridor will reduce transport time between China and the European part of Russia by 25-30%.

9. International corridor China – Kyrgyzstan – Uzbekistan.

A railway project of strategic importance for Central Asia. Its implementation will create the shortest route from the western provinces of China to Uzbekistan and further to the countries of the South Caucasus and the Middle East. The corridor will become part of the “Middle Belt” of Eurasia and will provide China with access to the Caspian Sea. In 2024, the participating countries signed an intergovernmental agreement to begin construction.

10. Northern Sea Route (NSR) initiative.

The NSR is becoming one of the most important components of the Eurasian transport network, providing the shortest route between Europe and Asia across the Arctic. Russia is developing port infrastructure (Murmansk, Sabetta, Dudinka), an icebreaker fleet and digital navigation systems.

11. International corridor Europe – Caucasus – Asia (TRACECA).

An initiative covering countries from Bulgaria to Kazakhstan and China. The corridor connects roads, railways and sea routes through the Black and Caspian Seas. In recent years, emphasis has been placed on modernizing the Baku-Tbilisi-Kars sections and digitalizing transit procedures. TRACECA remains a key link in the integration of the South Caucasus into Eurasian logistics.

12. Transport and logistics corridor Russia – Kazakhstan – Turkmenistan – Iran.

Continuation of the North-South axis, passing through the western regions of Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. As part of the project, the Bolashak – Etrek – Gorgan railway line is being actively developed, and multimodal terminals are being created in the ports of Aktau and Turkmenbashi. This route provides an alternative route for Russia and Kazakhstan to the Persian Gulf and India.

13. Project “Silk Bridge” (Trans-Eurasian Railway Bridge).

An initiative to create a continuous rail link from Lianyungang (China) to Rotterdam (Netherlands). Kazakhstan, Russia and Belarus play the role of the central link. The network includes the modernized sections Dostyk - Moyynty, Karaganda - Aktogay, Brest - Terespol. The goal of the project is to create a high-speed transcontinental route with a container delivery time of less than 12 days.

15. A set of projects for the development of ports and coastal hubs in the Caspian region.

Includes modernization of the ports of Aktau (Kazakhstan), Turkmenbashi (Turkmenistan), Anzali (Iran) and Alyat (Azerbaijan). These projects are aimed at forming a Caspian transport hub connecting north-south and east-west routes.

Tourism

Tourism in Central Eurasia is gradually transforming from a service sector into a mechanism of “soft integration”, strengthening humanitarian, cultural and economic ties between states. It contributes not only to GDP growth, but also to the formation of a common identity, increased population mobility and increased trust between countries.

In 2020, the EAEU countries - Kazakhstan, Armenia, Kyrgyzstan, Belarus and Russia - included the development of tourism in the Strategic Directions of Eurasian Economic Integration until 2025, identifying it as one of the priority areas along with education, healthcare and sports. This step was a recognition that tourism is not just a business, but a tool for regional consolidation and the “human dimension” of integration, allowing citizens of the Union to move freely, exchange culture and experience.

Tourism in the EAEU is developing as a tool for economic rapprochement and “public diplomacy.” The flow of travelers between the countries of the Union is growing, contributing to the development of small businesses, the hotel and transport sectors.

>  In 2024, 1.7 million tourists visited Armenia, more than 740 thousand of them from Russia.

>  8.76 million foreign visits were recorded in Kyrgyzstan in 2023, with 2.39 million tourists arriving from Kazakhstan and 639 thousand from Russia.

>  Russia in the first half of 2024 was visited by citizens of the EAEU countries: Kazakhstan – 1.03 million, Armenia – 159 thousand, Belarus – 111 thousand, Kyrgyzstan – 119 thousand.

>  Belarus received 5.04 million tourists in 2023, a significant part of which are citizens of Russia and the CIS countries.

>  Kazakhstan in the first half of 2024 registered 566.5 thousand foreign tourists, of which 186 thousand were Russian citizens.

The development of Eurasian tourist routes was a step towards systemic integration. In 2024, the EEC presented a map of routes, including 419 objects and 38 destinations, covering cultural, historical and natural attractions of the countries of the Union. Such projects create the prerequisites for branding the “Eurasian tourist space” and the formation of a common market for tourism services.

Despite the noticeable growth, the contribution of tourism to the economies of the EAEU countries still lags behind global indicators (on average 3% of GDP versus 10% in the world). However, this industry is becoming an important driver of non-commodity growth. Tourism contributes not only to GDP, but also to the balance of employment, creating thousands of jobs in related industries - transport, hotel business, public catering.

The most important direction is the formation of the Concept for the development of tourism in the EAEU (expected in 2025), which should determine the quality standards of services, investment mechanisms and promotion of the common brand “Eurasian tourism”. The concept assumes:

§ unification of service and safety standards;

§ formation of a unified information space for tour operators and tourists;

§ development of cross-border routes and event tourism;

§ creating conditions for joint investments and promotion in foreign markets.

Tourism is becoming one of the most promising areas of Eurasian integration, where the economic, cultural and humanitarian interests of countries coincide. It creates a positive image of the Union, strengthens internal connections and increases the sustainability of the economy. The creation of a single Eurasian tourism space, the introduction of digital solutions, the unification of standards and the development of cross-border routes will turn tourism into a real integration driver, uniting peoples through culture, common values ​​and joint economic benefits.

3. Main integration associations and initiatives

3.1. Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)

The phenomenon of integration in the Eurasian space represents a unique historical and political experiment. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) has become not just a mechanism for regulating the consequences of the collapse of the USSR, but also a laboratory for finding new forms of interaction between states with a common history, interdependent economies and overlapping geopolitical interests. In the broader context of integration processes, the CIS plays the role of an “institutional bridge” between the Soviet past and post-Soviet modernity, ensuring a transition from a centralized model to multi-level and flexible cooperation.

Historical context and role in the space of Central Eurasia

The creation of the CIS in the early 1990s was a response to the challenge faced by the former Soviet republics: how to maintain a minimum level of interaction and control after the collapse of a superpower. The historical mission of the Commonwealth was not so much the restoration of old ties as their civilized transformation.

Tab. 9 Chronology of key events in the history of the CIS

The collapse of the USSR in 1991 was accompanied not only by a political but also by an institutional vacuum. A mechanism was needed that could prevent chaos in the management of the common heritage: from nuclear weapons and military infrastructure to debt obligations and all-Union property. On December 1991, the leaders of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus signed the Belovezhskaya Agreement, legally fixing the end of the existence of the USSR. Two weeks later, on December 21, eight republics joined them in Alma-Ata, adopting the Alma-Ata Declaration, which expanded the number of participants and confirmed the continuity of international obligations. On January 22, 1993, the CIS Charter was adopted, which established the goals, principles and system of governing bodies.

Tab. 10 CIS states and their current status

The initial goals of the Commonwealth were pragmatic: to ensure a “civilized divorce” of the Union republics, to prevent conflicts over the division of property and borders, to resolve issues of succession and the status of nuclear weapons. Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine agreed to transfer nuclear arsenals to Russia, and subsequently to join the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons as nuclear-free states. At the same time, the Commonwealth became a platform for developing new forms of interaction that did not imply supranational control, which reflected the desire of the republics to maintain sovereignty.

In the long term, the CIS has become an important component of the regional subsystem of international relations in the Eurasian space. Its institutional model – soft, consensual and open – made it possible to maintain a space for dialogue even during periods of political crises. Despite the limited binding force of its decisions, the CIS played a stabilizing role, mitigating the geopolitical consequences of the collapse and providing the basis for further integration projects such as the EAEU or the CSTO.

The historical significance of the CIS lies in the fact that it made it possible to transfer the process of disintegration into a controlled channel, creating a unique form of “transitional integration.” It has become a tool for institutional adaptation of post-Soviet countries to new realities and continues to be a platform for coordinating interests, despite internal contradictions and the changed international situation.

Structure and forms of cooperation

The organizational structure of the CIS reflects its nature as a flexible interstate association, where each element performs a coordinating, rather than supranational, function. It is important to emphasize: the architecture of the CIS was not static - it gradually evolved, adapting to the changing composition of participants and different levels of involvement.

The Council of Heads of State (CHS) is the highest body. Determines the strategic directions of development of the Commonwealth, makes key political decisions, approves priority programs. As a rule, it meets twice a year.

The Council of Heads of Government (CHG) - coordinates economic, social and other areas. Reviews projects of interstate programs, coordinates the work of ministries and departments of the CIS countries.

Council of Foreign Ministers (CMFA) - coordinates foreign policy. Ready for the CHS meeting, coordinates the positions of the CIS countries on international issues, and forms common approaches to global and regional challenges.

Council of Defense Ministers (CMD) - coordinates military cooperation between CIS countries. Develops proposals for joint defense policy, organizes exercises, etc. activities within the framework of the Joint Air Defense System. Ensures interaction between armed forces in emergency situations.

The Council of Commanders of Border Troops deals with issues of border protection, combating cross-border crime and illegal migration. Develops recommendations for the unification of border legislation and coordinates joint operations on the external borders of the CIS.

Economic Court of the CIS - considers disputes between participating states on issues of an economic and legal nature arising in the implementation of agreements within the CIS. Gives an interpretation of the rules governing economic relations between the countries of the Commonwealth.

The Economic Council (with its Economic Commission) prepares economic decisions.

The Interparliamentary Assembly (IPA CIS) is a parliamentary platform engaged in model lawmaking and election observation.

Executive Committee – has executive functions; headed by the General Secretary (since 2007 - Sergey Lebedev).

Industry cooperation bodies are a set of specialized boards of commissions (there are more than 70 of them) operating in certain areas: education, science, healthcare, transport, energy, culture, sports, tourism, youth policy, etc.

Decisions in the Commonwealth are made solely on the basis of consensus. At the same time, the possibility of a “declaration of disinterest” is provided, when the state may not participate in a specific decision without blocking its adoption. This allows for a collaborative approach to be combined with flexible participation.

The CIS chairmanship scheme is built on the principle of rotation: each country takes turns leading the Organization, ensuring continuity and equality. In 2025, the chairman of the CIS is Tajikistan, and the co-chairs are Russia and Turkmenistan.

A special feature of the CIS is the concept of multi-speed and multi-level integration, according to which states participate only in those areas that correspond to their interests and capabilities. This approach was especially evident in relation to Ukraine and Turkmenistan. Ukraine, being one of the founding countries, never ratified the CIS Charter, formally remaining a participant, but not a member. After 2014, Kyiv actually stopped participating in the statutory bodies and gradually denounced most agreements. Turkmenistan, on the contrary, retained participation, but in a limited format. In 2005, the country received associate member status, which is in line with its policy of permanent neutrality. Thus, the CIS has developed a unique mechanism of flexibility that allows it to maintain the organization even with differences in the political courses of its members.

Main activities

The CIS is not an integration union in the Western European sense - its effectiveness is manifested not in the speed of political decisions, but in the ability to build cooperation in those areas where mutual interest remains. Over the course of three decades, the most noticeable results have been achieved in the economic, security, humanitarian and socio-legal fields.

Economic interaction has become the central focus of the CIS. After the collapse of the USSR, economic ties between the former republics were severed, leading to a decline in production and trade flows. In response, the Commonwealth began to form a Free Trade Area, the main goal of which was to restore mutual trade on market principles. The 2011 agreement consolidated the free trade regime, ensuring the liberalization of the exchange of goods and services, the removal of restrictions and the unification of customs procedures.

Despite the existence of barriers and different levels of readiness of countries, the CIS FTA has become the foundation for deepening integration. For some of the participants - Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Armenia and Kyrgyzstan - further development was embodied in the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), which was largely based on the regulatory framework of the CIS. At the same time, for other countries outside the EAEU, the FTA remains the main instrument of economic interaction.

The security sector was initially considered as one of the priority areas. In 1995, the Joint Air Defense System was created, including joint duty, information exchange and annual “Combat Commonwealth” exercises. Within the CIS, cooperation has been established to combat terrorism, transnational crime and drug trafficking.

The humanitarian dimension of the CIS is focused on preserving the cultural and educational space that arose during the Soviet era. Interstate programs and festivals are regularly held to strengthen identity and mutual understanding. Since the 2010s, the “Cultural Capital of the Commonwealth” project has been actively developing, within the framework of which every year one of the cities receives the symbolic status of a center of humanitarian interaction.

Much attention is paid to scientific and youth programs, as well as media cooperation - the TV and radio company Mir plays an important role, ensuring the information presence of the CIS in the media space.

One of the significant directions was the convergence of legal systems and ensuring social protection of people. Through the Interparliamentary Assembly, model laws are adopted regulating labor migration, payment of pensions, recognition of diplomas and qualifications. Mutual recognition of documents and agreements on social assistance allows CIS citizens to move and work more freely in the territory of other countries. These norms ensure the preservation of the social unity of the space of Central Eurasia.

The CIS has proven its relevance where the interests of its participants coincide: in trade, security, culture and legal protection of citizens. Although the level of institutionalization remains low, it is in these practical areas that the Commonwealth demonstrates sustainable effectiveness, forming an “interaction infrastructure” in the Eurasian space.

At the moment, the CIS has entered a phase of maturity, when its effectiveness is determined not by the scale of integration, but by the stability of communication between participants. The future of the CIS depends on the ability to adapt to the new geopolitical reality, strengthen functional areas and maintain a balance between flexibility of participation and real effectiveness. In this sense, the Commonwealth continues to be a symbol not only of historical continuity, but also of the potential for cooperation in the Eurasian space.

3.2. Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)

The CSTO is a key military-political integration association in Central Eurasia, acting not only as an instrument of collective defense, but also as a factor in the institutionalization of multi-level security in Eurasia. It arose as a response to the systemic need to maintain strategic stability after the collapse of the USSR and prevent a vacuum of power in a space where interdependent security systems historically developed. In this sense, the CSTO is not just a defense union, but a regional mechanism for coordinating foreign policy and military-strategic interests, based on the common historical, cultural and legal foundations of the member states. Its activities are aimed at maintaining stability, building an architecture of trust and jointly responding to threats of the 21st century - from classic military risks to hybrid and transnational challenges.

History of creation and development

The process of formation of the CSTO reflects the evolution of regional security systems after the collapse of the bipolar world. For post-Soviet states, faced with a crisis of institutions and new geopolitical uncertainty, the collective defense format became a way to institutionalize security. The Collective Security Treaty transformed the Eurasian space from a zone of instability into a zone of regulated interaction.

On May 15, 1992, in Tashkent, the heads of Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan signed the Collective Security Treaty (CST). In 1993, Azerbaijan, Belarus and Georgia joined them. The treaty entered into force on April 20, 1994 after ratification. Its central element was Article 4, which enshrined the principle of collective defense - an attack on one participant is considered an aggression against all.

After the first five years of its existence, the CST underwent qualitative changes: in 1999, six countries (Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia and Tajikistan) signed a Protocol on the extension of the Treaty, laying the foundation for closer integration. At the same time, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Uzbekistan ceased membership.

The transition from the Treaty to the Organization was marked by the decision of the SSC on May 14, 2002 to give the Treaty the status of an international regional organization. On October 7, 2002, the CSTO Charter was adopted in Chisinau, establishing it as a full-fledged international organization, and in 2004 it received observer status at the UN General Assembly. Uzbekistan, which left the organization in 1999, temporarily returned in 2006, but suspended participation again in 2012.

Thus, the evolution of the CSTO is an example of the gradual institutional formation of Central Eurasia within the framework of a single defense contour. The change in the composition of participants did not weaken, but on the contrary, strengthened it as an alliance of states focused on sustainable interaction in building a single security space. From a Treaty aimed at survival, the Organization has gone the way to an internationally recognized institution of collective security with legal and political subjectivity within the global system.

Structure and main institutions

The organizational structure of the CSTO is built on the principle of institutional interconnection between political, military and coordination bodies. This model reflects the participants’ desire to combine interstate sovereignty with mechanisms of supranational coordination. Unlike NATO, where decisions can be made by a majority, the CSTO operates on the principle of consensus, which makes it an instrument of political balance rather than hierarchical control.

The Collective Security Council (CSC) is the highest body consisting of presidents and the head of government. Determines strategic directions of activity and approves key decisions. Ensures coordination of foreign policy and military strategy of member states.

The Council of Foreign Ministers (CMFA) - coordinates foreign policy actions, forms common positions on international security issues and interacts with other organizations (UN, SCO, CIS, etc.).

The Council of Defense Ministers (CMD) is responsible for the development of military cooperation, planning joint exercises and the formation of joint force groups.

Committee of Secretaries of Security Councils (CSSC) - deals with issues of national security and crisis response, as well as the development of coordinated measures to counter modern threats.

The CSTO Permanent Council is a coordinating body operating between the sessions of the CSC, the Council of Foreign Ministers, the Council of Foreign Ministers and the CSSC. It consists of permanent and authorized representatives of the member states and ensures the continuity of management of the organization.

The CSTO Secretariat performs analytical, informational and organizational functions, ensuring the unity of document flow and expert support.

The CSTO Secretary General is the highest administrative official representing the CSTO in external contacts. Since 2023, this position has been held by Imangali Tasmagambetov.

The CSTO Joint Headquarters is responsible for the military component: preparing operations, planning joint actions and organizing exercises. Since 2023, the headquarters has been headed by Colonel General Andrei Serdyukov.

Since 2010, the CSTO Parliamentary Assembly has been enshrined in the Charter as a body of inter-parliamentary cooperation. Its creation marked the transition of the CSTO to a more comprehensive integration model, where collective security is considered not only in the military, but also in the political and legal dimension. The Assembly includes delegations from the parliaments of all member states.

The structure of the CSTO demonstrates a balance between interstate and functional principles. It combines elements of a classic intergovernmental alliance and a permanent institution of collective defense. This architecture allows the organization to adapt to a changing threat environment - from military to humanitarian - and provides flexibility while maintaining unity of action.

Mechanisms of interaction between participants

The CSTO is not only a military alliance, but also a political and legal mechanism for coordinating the actions of sovereign states. The main principle of interaction is consensus, which makes the Organization a platform for dialogue and not coercion. Unlike block structures with strict leadership, here each participant retains autonomy, and decisions are made jointly.

The central element of the legal structure is Article 4 of the Treaty, which establishes that an attack on one state is considered an aggression against all. This provision became the cornerstone of the practice of collective response, which was clearly demonstrated in January 2022, when the CSTO for the first time in history activated collective assistance mechanisms - a limited peacekeeping contingent was introduced into Kazakhstan to stabilize the situation.

Tab. 11 Military components of the CSTO

The military-political activities of the CSTO are based on the principles of joint readiness and strategic interaction. The creation of the Collective Rapid Reaction Force in 2009 was a step towards the formation of a real security component of the Organization. These forces have the ability to quickly deploy and perform both combat and counter-terrorism functions.

Regular joint exercises, such as “Interaction”, “Frontier” and “Indestructible Brotherhood”, perform not only a tactical, but also a political function - they demonstrate allied cohesion and the ability of member states to act in a single format. Through such exercises, scenarios for countering terrorism, eliminating the consequences of crises, and protecting strategic facilities are worked out.

An important area of activity is the fight against transnational threats - terrorism, drug trafficking, illegal migration. The anti-drug operation “Channel” has become one of the longest and most effective international projects in this area, leading to the seizure of hundreds of tons of narcotic substances. Operation Mercenary is aimed at neutralizing militants trained in conflict zones. And the “PROXY” format is a practical tool for the CSTO’s response to threats in cyberspace and information attacks.

Cooperation in the field of personnel training occupies a special place. The CSTO is forming a single educational space, where more than one and a half thousand cadets and specialists from member states are trained annually, which ensures the unification of approaches to security.

The CSTO is gradually transforming from a defense union into a multi-level collective security mechanism, where military measures are complemented by political, diplomatic, anti-terrorism and humanitarian systems. Article 4 is less a threat to use force and more a guarantee of solidarity. Thus, the Organization acts not only as a response block, but also as an architect of regional stability, based on legal and institutional structures.

3.3. Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU)

Eurasian economic integration in the EAEU format is an independent economic and legal project in the space of Central Eurasia. The Union relies on supranational institutions and international legal personality, uniting historically interconnected markets, production chains and factors of production into a single regulatory space. In practice, the EAEU acts as a transition from disparate agreements of the 1990s to a systemic model of a common market, where tariff and non-tariff policies, technological regulation, a competitive environment and the “four freedoms” regime are coordinated: free movement of goods, persons, services and capital. Thus, the Union serves as an instrument for structural modernization and deepening economic interdependence in the region.

History and stages of formation

After the collapse of the USSR in the territories of the newly independent states in the 1990s, a need arose for coordinated mechanisms of economic interaction. In parallel with the development of the CIS, work was carried out on bilateral and multilateral agreements aimed at maintaining trade and economic ties and removing barriers to the movement of goods and capital. On March 29, 1994, President of the Republic of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev, speaking at Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov in Moscow, proposed the creation of the Eurasian Union as an institutionalized form of economic integration.

Tab. 12 Key stages in the formation of the EAEU

Practical institutionalization began in 2000 with the signing on October 10 of the Treaty establishing the Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC). The EurAsEC has become a platform for harmonizing economic policies and preparing a regulatory framework for future integration formats, including technical regulation, customs cooperation and coordination of measures to develop common markets.

The next stage was the formation of the Customs Union. The basic agreement “On the creation of a single customs territory and the formation of the Customs Union” was signed on October 6, 2007, and the launch of practical mechanisms occurred in 2010, when a single customs tariff began to be applied and customs control at internal borders was gradually lifted (2010-2011). This stage was accompanied by the codification of customs rules and the development of a unified foreign trade policy.

In 2011, key political and legal acts were adopted to deepen integration: on November 18, the Declaration on Eurasian Economic Integration and the Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Commission (EEC) were signed, which determined the status of a permanent supranational regulator. On January 1, 2012, the format of the Common Economic Space began to function, expanding the coordination of economic policy and deepening the “four freedoms” regime.

The final step was the creation of the EAEU: on May 29, 2014, the Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union was signed in Astana, which entered into force on January 1, 2015. At the same time, acts of accession of new participants were drawn up: Armenia joined under the terms of an agreement that entered into force on January 2, 2015, and Kyrgyzstan - in accordance with documents that entered into force on August 12, 2015. Thus, the transition from intergovernmental formats to a full-fledged international organization with a single legal space was completed.

Structure and key institutions

The institutional architecture of the EAEU is built on a clear distinction between levels of management and on the principle that in delegated areas regulation is carried out by supranational bodies. The Union has international legal personality; its legal order includes the Treaty on the EAEU, international treaties concluded within its framework, as well as decisions and orders of the Union bodies, which in established areas are subject to direct application and ensure the uniformity of the rules of the common market. Strategic guidelines and contractual policies are formed at the level of heads of state (the Supreme Council), intergovernmental coordination and control over the implementation of decisions is carried out by the Council of Heads of Governments, current rule-making and market regulation is carried out by the Eurasian Economic Commission, and the uniform interpretation and protection of Union law is ensured by the EAEU Court. Supreme bodies are characterized by decision-making by consensus, while the Commission acts within the limits of delegated powers, which maintains a balance of national sovereignty and the effectiveness of supranational regulation.

The Supreme Eurasian Economic Council is the highest body of the EAEU, which includes the heads of member states. It determines the strategy and directions of integration, approves the budget of the Union, makes decisions on international treaties and personnel appointments to supranational bodies.

The Eurasian Intergovernmental Council is a body consisting of heads of government of member states. Its tasks include ensuring the implementation of the Treaty on the EAEU and top-level decisions, coordinating economic policy measures and monitoring the implementation of acts of the Commission.

The Eurasian Economic Commission is a permanent regulatory body of the Union, consisting of a Council (at the level of deputy prime ministers) and a Collegium (supranational ministers). The Commission makes decisions, orders and recommendations that are binding in specified areas.

The Court of the Eurasian Economic Union is a permanent judicial body that ensures uniform interpretation and application of Union law. It considers disputes between integration participants and provides clarifications on the application of EAEU acts.

Main activities

In parallel with the development of institutions, key areas of work were formed based on ensuring the “four freedoms” - free movement of goods, persons, services and capital - for the sake of forming a single market and achieving the goals of modernization, cooperation and increasing the competitiveness of national economies. These guidelines are enshrined in the legal framework of the EAEU and are specified by decisions of the Union bodies, which set the rules for access to the market, establish uniform procedures and create a predictable regulatory environment for participants in cross-border activities.

They are in charge of customs tariff and non-tariff regulation of foreign trade, customs administration under the unified Customs Code, technical regulation (unified technical regulations and conformity assessment procedures), sanitary, veterinary and phytosanitary measures, control of competition in cross-border markets and government assistance, access to government procurement, as well as conducting foreign trade negotiations and concluding agreements on behalf of the Union; at the same time, the “four freedoms” (goods, services, capital and labor) are provided by a common legal framework with elements of mutual recognition of qualifications and equality of labor rights, while migration and financial regulation predominantly remain under national jurisdiction and are coordinated through agreed mechanisms

The practical basis for integration is the Customs Union: a single customs tariff and uniform rules of foreign trade regulation are applied, customs controls at internal borders are eliminated, and trade with third countries is carried out under unified tariff and non-tariff regimes, including the use of trade protective measures (anti-dumping, countervailing and special) according to established procedural standards. The Unified Customs Code specifies the procedure for declaring and releasing goods, the institution of authorized economic operators and post-control mechanisms.

Sectoral coordination unfolds through technical regulation and sanitary-epidemiological, veterinary and phytosanitary policies: uniform technical regulations of the EAEU are approved, agreed upon product safety requirements are introduced, conformity assessment procedures and common circulation marks are established, common registers and mechanisms for mutual recognition of control are formed. This reduces transaction costs, eliminates duplication of checks and facilitates access to products on the common market.

A separate area is maintaining competition in cross-border markets and controlling government assistance, where the supranational regulator prevents anti-competitive practices and ensures equal business conditions, as well as the creation of a common public procurement space with unified rules and electronic access tools. On the external contour, the Union negotiates and concludes international agreements within its competence, developing trade and economic relations with third countries and integration associations. Strategic guidelines are set by long-term documents, including the “Main Directions of Economic Development of the EAEU until 2030” and “Main Directions of International Activities,” which ensures consistency between internal regulation and external contractual policy.

On the scale of Greater Eurasia, the EAEU acts as an institutional “framework” of regulatory compatibility and logistics connectivity between the largest growth centers, translating the idea of a Greater Eurasian Partnership from a political concept into a network of practical projects: through common tariff and non-tariff rules, technical regulations and requirements, the Union forms a predictable regulatory perimeter that can be interfaced with SCO formats, dialogue with ASEAN and infrastructure initiatives within the framework of connecting transport and digital corridors. Its negotiated foreign policy (trade and economic cooperation agreements and preferential regimes) makes it possible to build a “modular” architecture of cooperation with key partners without creating super-blocks, and the unification of procedures - from customs administration and traceability to access to procurement - reduces transaction costs in transcontinental supply chains. In this sense, the EAEU sets the technical standard for interaction for Greater Eurasia: it ensures compatibility of rules on the basis of which a gradual expansion of the common economic space is possible, while maintaining variability in the depth of participation of individual states and flexibility in coordinating sovereign priorities.

3.4. Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) today represents one of the key integration associations in Eurasia, connecting countries that account for more than half of the territory and population of the continent. Created at the junction of the post-bipolar era and the beginning of the 21st century, the SCO has become a model of “inclusive regionalization”, opposed to the logic of military-political blocs.

After more than two decades of its existence, the SCO has established itself as a strategic center of power and dialogue in Eurasia, connecting states with different political systems, civilizational codes and interests. Its value lies in its ability to build cooperation without domination and outside the logic of bloc confrontation.

History of creation and development

The emergence of the SCO reflected the desire of the Eurasian states to develop new forms of regional interaction in the context of the transformation of the international system after the end of the Cold War. In the mid-1990s, the countries of Central Asia, Russia and China were faced with the task of strengthening confidence-building measures over vast territories, where, in many cases, clarification of borders was required. For these purposes, a consultation mechanism was created in 1996, called the “Shanghai Five” (Kazakhstan, China, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan). Its key result was the signing of the Agreement on Strengthening Confidence in the Military Field in the Border Area (Shanghai, 1996) and the Agreement on the Mutual Reduction of Armed Forces in the Border Area (Moscow, 1997). These agreements laid the legal basis for peaceful coexistence and turned the region into a space of predictability and cooperation, and also formed a new philosophy of interaction - the so-called “Shanghai Spirit”, based on mutual respect, equality, trust and rejection of bloc thinking.

Tab. 13 Stages of SCO expansion

On July 15, 2001, after five years of functioning of the Shanghai Five, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization was officially established in Shanghai. Uzbekistan joined the five states, giving the format a broader regional dimension. On this day, the Declaration on the establishment of the SCO was signed, as well as the Shanghai Convention on Combating Terrorism, Separatism and Extremism, which outlined the priority direction of the Organization’s activities - jointly ensuring regional security. In 2002, the SCO Charter was adopted in St. Petersburg, establishing its legal personality and institutional structure. In 2004, permanent executive bodies began working - the SCO Secretariat in Beijing and the Executive Committee of the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) in Tashkent. Later, in 2007, the member states signed the Treaty on Long-Term Neighborhood, Friendship and Cooperation, which established the principles of sustainable interaction for the long term.

In subsequent years, the SCO has consistently expanded its membership. In 2017, India and Pakistan were admitted to the Organization, which transformed it from a regional association into a platform covering South Asia. Iran joined in 2023, and Belarus in 2024. The expansion of its membership gave the SCO the features of a continental integration center, uniting countries with different political systems and civilizational models, but a similar understanding of the need for dialogue and the inadmissibility of hegemony.

Structure and key institutions

The organizational structure of the SCO reflects the principle of equality of participants and the absence of hierarchical dominance. Unlike supranational integration models, the SCO operates on the basis of coordination of sovereign policies, where each country retains autonomy. Decisions are made by consensus, which provides a high level of legitimacy and trust, but requires significant effort to achieve agreement.

The Council of Heads of State (CHS) is the highest body of the SCO, determining the main activities and development priorities of the Organization.

The Council of Heads of Government (CHG) is responsible for implementing the decisions of the CGG and coordinating economic interaction.

Meeting of heads of ministries and/or departments - formats of sectoral meetings of ministers (foreign affairs, defense, economics, culture, etc.), where specific areas of interaction and joint projects are discussed.

Commissions of senior officials are working bodies that prepare materials and recommendations for meetings of ministries and departments. Provide technical and expert development of solutions.

Special working groups are created to solve specific problems or prepare documents in certain areas - from energy and transport to digital security.

The Council of National Coordinators (CNC) ensures ongoing interaction between national structures and executive bodies of the SCO.

The SCO Secretariat is a permanent administrative body that provides organizational and technical support for SCO activities and documentation. Headed by the SCO Secretary General. Located in Beijing.

Permanent representatives to the SCO Secretariat represent the interests of their countries in Beijing and participate in the work of the Secretariat. Ensure constant communication between national departments and organizations.

The Regional Anti-Terrorism Structure (RATS) is a specialized body of the SCO coordinating the fight against terrorism, extremism and separatism. Forms databases, exchanges information and conducts joint operations.

The RATS Council is the highest governing body of the RATS, consisting of representatives of the competent departments of the member states. Determines priorities and directions of activity in the field of security.

The RATS Executive Committee is a permanent executive body of the RATS, ensuring the implementation of Council decisions and practical coordination of counter-terrorism activities. Located in Tashkent.

Permanent representatives at RATS - interact between the Executive Committee and national security authorities, participate in operational consultations and data exchange.

The SCO Business Council is a platform for interaction between the business circles of the member states. Promotes the development of entrepreneurship, investment cooperation and joint projects.

The SCO Forum is a consultative and expert platform that brings together scientists, analysts and public figures. Provides expert support for decisions and forms proposals for the development of the SCO.

The Interbank Association (IBO SCO) is a mechanism for financial support and lending to joint projects within the SCO. Includes leading banks of member states.

An important step in the institutional development of the SCO was the decision to establish the SCO Development Bank, enshrined in the Tianjin Declaration of the Council of Heads of State. The new financial institution is intended to become the core of the formation of an alternative architecture for global governance in the field of finance and investment. Unlike international structures of the Western type, such as the IMF or the World Bank, the SCO Development Bank is conceived as an instrument of sovereign development, based on the principles of equality and mutual benefit. Its main task is to provide an independent payment, settlement and depository infrastructure for member countries, including a clearing center and its own system of cross-border settlements based on national currencies and digital financial technologies.

The creation of the Development Bank also reflects the SCO's desire to move from a coordination format to building functional management institutions capable of providing practical content for economic interaction. In the future, it is through such mechanisms that a new model of a post-Western financial order is being formed, in which Eurasia becomes an independent center of decision-making.

The bank must not only finance joint investment projects, but also perform the functions of rating and depository independence: developing its own risk assessment system, issuing joint bonds, forming an independent depository to replace Euroclear and Clearstream - all these are steps towards strengthening the economic sovereignty of the SCO states.

The SCO structure is a network model of regional governance, in which each element performs limited but complementary functions. Such a system minimizes the risks of dominance by one side and strengthens horizontal ties between states. Institutional flexibility allows an organization to adapt to new challenges without becoming a bureaucratic structure, but while maintaining its coalitional character.

Main activities

The SCO is a multi-level platform of interaction, where issues of security, economics and humanitarian ties are considered inextricably linked. This complexity makes the organization an example of a new type of cooperative security, based not on military alliances, but on mutual trust and joint development.

In the security sphere, the central place is occupied by the fight against the three forces of evil - terrorism, separatism and extremism. The basis of the legal framework is the Shanghai Convention of 2001, and practical coordination is carried out through RATS, which forms a common base for terrorist organizations, coordinates operational actions and facilitates the interaction of law enforcement agencies. The SCO is also actively involved in international initiatives to combat drug trafficking and cyber threats, supporting joint operations and information exchange programs. It is important to emphasize that the organization is not a military bloc, but strives to form a security system that excludes confrontation and interference in the internal affairs of states.

The economic dimension of the SCO's activities is aimed at developing trade, investment and infrastructure interaction. The adopted Program of Multilateral Trade and Economic Cooperation defines key areas - the development of transport, energy, digital economy, innovation and scientific and technical ties. The SCO Interbank Association and the Business Council play an important role in financing projects and promoting settlements in national currencies. In the long term, the possibility of creating a free trade zone or other liberalization mechanism is being discussed. The economic agenda increasingly includes green and sustainable technologies, reflecting the desire of participants to integrate the environmental agenda into development strategies.

The establishment of the SCO Development Bank marks the Organization's transition from project coordination to the formation of real institutions of global governance. Together with the Interbank Association, the Business Council and the national payment systems of the member countries, it creates the basis for Eurasian financial autonomy. The development of their own settlement mechanisms, including digital currencies and clearing platforms, will allow the SCO countries to conduct transactions in national currencies without resorting to Western financial intermediaries, which is especially important in the context of sanctions pressure and the politicization of the global economy.

No less significant is the humanitarian direction, which serves to form common values and strengthen trust between peoples. Within the framework of the Organization, there is the SCO University, which unites leading universities of the participating countries; academic and youth exchange programs are implemented, festivals, marathons and cultural events are held. All this contributes to the formation of a Eurasian identity of cooperation and strengthening the “soft power” of the Organization.

In the international arena, the SCO maintains close interaction with the UN and regional structures - the CIS, CSTO, ASEAN, advocating a multipolar system of international relations and the principle of indivisible security. Her approach reflects the desire to create an architecture of equal dialogue rather than confrontation.

The experience of the SCO shows that security, development and humanitarian cooperation cannot exist in isolation. The organization is building a comprehensive model of interaction, where each area complements the other, creating conditions for sustainability and mutual benefit. The main feature of the SCO is that it is based not on coercion, but on voluntariness and consensus, thereby creating a space where diversity is perceived not as a threat, but as a source of strength.

The SCO has established itself as a supporting structure for the formation of a multipolar world, connecting various political systems and cultural models. Its evolution reflects the movement of Eurasia towards a new architecture of trust. In an era of growing global contradictions, the SCO demonstrates that sustainable cooperation is possible even beyond the logic of confrontation, if it is built on respect, trust and the desire for common development.

The creation of the SCO Development Bank and related economic integration institutions shows that the Organization is gradually moving beyond the classical regional structure and becoming a supporting platform for the establishment of new mechanisms of global governance. In this context, the SCO is turning not just into an instrument of regional stability, but into a project for a systemic rethinking of the global economic and financial architecture, where the center of gravity is gradually shifting from the Atlantic to the Eurasian contour.

3.5. Other initiatives and projects

Union State of Russia and Belarus

The union state is the most institutionally advanced form of bilateral integration in the Eurasian space: with a limited number of participants, its depth of coordination is higher than in multilateral formats. The association is resistant to political fluctuations: integration is based on security, industrial cooperation and regulatory convergence, and not just trade.

The association includes the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus and is based on the Treaty on the Establishment of the Union State of December 8, 1999, supplemented by further integration programs. The stated goals are the formation of a single economic and defense space, coordination of foreign and migration policies, as well as the unification of legislation and the development of joint programs in industry, agriculture, science and the digital sphere. Management is carried out by the Supreme State Council, the Council of Ministers and the Standing Committee; In addition, the Parliamentary Assembly and the Court of the Union State operate. Practical results include joint defense activities (including a regional unified air defense system and cooperation between defense industry enterprises), projects in the space industry (satellite and navigation programs), sectoral industrial programs (radio electronics, mechanical engineering, medicine and pharmaceuticals), as well as simplification of the movement of citizens and cargo and coordination of individual elements of excise and tariff policies.

Integration is “functional” in nature: the greatest progress has been achieved where there is synergy of sovereign resources (defense-industrial complex, space, energy) and regulatory convergence. The constraint is differences in economic structure and the need to balance fiscal powers and price coordination; however, the stability of the format is higher than that of multilateral blocks.

Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)

The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) was launched by Chinese President Xi Jinping in 2013 and is a large-scale strategy for creating a network of infrastructure, trade and investment links between Asia, Europe, Africa and the Middle East.

It includes two complementary directions - the Silk Road Economic Belt (land dimension) and the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st century. The main goal is to create a single space that ensures the free movement of goods, capital, technology and ideas, as well as promoting the principle of “joint development” through mutually beneficial projects.

Hundreds of infrastructure and industrial projects are being implemented as part of the BRI: railways, highways, ports, logistics hubs, energy networks, telecommunications and digital corridors. The initiative covers more than 150 countries and international organizations, creating the largest platform for cooperation between developing and developed economies. Financing is provided through the Silk Road Fund, the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) and other Chinese and international institutions. Particular attention is paid to “green” and digital components - sustainable energy projects, low-carbon logistics and smart infrastructure.

In the space of Greater Eurasia, the BRI plays the role of a structure-forming project that promotes the integration of Chinese, Eurasian, European and Middle Eastern development strategies. It forms a network of transport, logistics and economic corridors from the Baltic to the South China Sea. At the same time, the initiative retains a flexible, networked character, not being an international organization, but creating the basis for a new model of Eurasian integration based on infrastructural interconnectedness and pragmatic cooperation.

Eurasian Fund for Stabilization and Development (EFSD)

The Eurasian Fund for Stabilization and Development (EFSD, formerly the EurAsEC Anti-Crisis Fund) was established on June 9, 2009 by Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan with a capital of 8.513 billion US dollars. In 2024, the Fund received the status of an independent international financial organization. The mission of the Fund is to promote the economic and financial stability of member states and their sustainable development. Management is carried out by the Board of Governors, the Board of Directors, the Management Board and the Managing Director.

The EFSD provides stabilization financing to member states to support budgets and balances of payments, sovereign financing for the implementation of key government projects in the fields of transport, energy, water sector, agriculture, social infrastructure, as well as technical assistance to improve the quality of public administration and promote institutional change.

The Fund is part of the Global Financial Safety Net (GFSN), its regional financial mechanism (RFM), along with the European Stability Mechanism, the Arab Monetary Fund and the BRICS Foreign Exchange Reserve Pool, the Latin American Reserve Fund. In the GFSB, as a stabilization mechanism, it occupies an important place between national international reserves, swap lines and the international monetary fund. The EFSD contributes to strengthening the architecture of economic stability and security in Greater Eurasia.

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a regional intergovernmental organization uniting 10 countries of Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, the Philippines, Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar and Cambodia. Founded on August 8, 1967 by signing the Bangkok Declaration, which became the basis for the political and economic rapprochement of the states of the region. ASEAN's goals include maintaining peace and stability, accelerating socio-economic development and strengthening mutual cooperation. The organization has a developed institutional structure: the highest body is the summit of leaders, the Council of Foreign Ministers, ministerial meetings and the Permanent Secretariat in Jakarta.

ASEAN is seen as an important element of the Asian regional architecture, providing interaction through the formats of ASEAN+3 (with China, Japan and South Korea), ASEAN+6, the East Asia Summit (EAS) and the Regional Security Forum (ARF). The organization has established a free trade area (AFTA) and is moving towards the formation of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC), based on the principles of gradual liberalization and mutual recognition of standards. ASEAN plays a key role in maintaining a balance of power and open economic connectivity between Asian countries and external partners - from China and India to the EU and Russia. For the Greater Eurasian space, ASEAN is a hub for interaction between East and West, where the interests of major powers intersect and the principles of inclusive regional integration are formed.

Organization of Turkic States (OTS)

The Organization of Turkic States (OTS) unites Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkey and Uzbekistan; Turkmenistan and Hungary participate in observer status. Created in 2009 (in its modern form - from 2021), the organization coordinates cooperation in the economy, transport, culture, energy and security.

Of particular importance is the development of the Middle (Trans-Caspian) transport corridor connecting China, Central Asia, the Caspian Sea and Europe. The institutional structure includes the Council of Heads of State, the Council of Foreign Ministers and the Secretariat in Istanbul.

BRICS

BRICS is an interstate association of rapidly developing economies, which since 2006/2009. has evolved from coordination meetings into a multi-format cooperation platform. In the current configuration, it includes ten states (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa, the United Arab Emirates, Iran, Egypt, Ethiopia, Indonesia), while the three largest countries in the bloc in terms of economic and demographic weight - China, India and Russia - are located in Greater Eurasia. The institutional framework is made up of the New Development Bank and the Contingent Foreign Exchange Reserve Pool, as well as sectoral tracks (energy, transport, digital agenda, fintech), which form alternative channels of financing and coordination of standards. The expansion of the format (“BRICS+”, partner statuses) strengthened the bloc’s representativeness in the global economy (increased share in PPP and in oil production) and gave it greater geographic depth in Eurasia, Africa and the Middle East.

By nature, BRICS remains a flexible, consensus-based and project-oriented platform, and not a supranational union: decisions are made at leaders’ summits and ministerial meetings, and implementation is carried out through national programs and development banks. In the space of Greater Eurasia, the association acts as a connecting “bridge” between key growth centers, connecting raw materials, industrial and logistics chains (China – India – Russia – Middle East) and complementing other regional formats (SCO, EAEU, BRI). The strategic value of BRICS lies in the diversification of the global governance and financing architecture, increasing the autonomy of developing economies and creating a multi-level system of cooperation without strict obligations and uniform rules for everyone.

Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD)

The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD) is a strategic format of cooperation between Australia, India, Japan and the United States, aimed at strengthening the security and sustainability of the Indo-Pacific region. The initiative was proposed in 2007 by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe with the support of American Vice President Dick Cheney, Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and Australian Prime Minister John Howard. After a brief hiatus in 2008, QUAD was reactivated in 2017 under the Donald Trump administration.

In practice, QUAD functions as a flexible political-consultative structure, without a permanent secretariat or legal obligations, but with regular meetings at the level of leaders and ministers. His agenda includes maritime security, cyber and technological protection, development of critical infrastructure and supply chains. Although the format is positioned as inclusive, its strategic context is related to containing China.

“C5+1” format (Central Asia + external partner)

“C5+1” institutionalizes the external involvement of Central Asia, allowing the “five” countries to coordinate positions and strengthen negotiating power with major partners. Moreover, the format is not an organization, but a political and diplomatic mechanism, flexible in terms of agenda.

The participants are Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan together with one external partner (for example, the USA, Japan, China, the EU, the Republic of Korea, etc.). The goal is regular multilateral consultations on security, economic development and investment, transport and logistics, water and energy complex, climate, ecology, digitalization and human capital development. In practice, the format is expressed in annual and ad hoc meetings of leaders and foreign ministers, as well as in specialized working groups on transport corridors, green energy, water security, cross-border cooperation and education.

Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building Measures in Asia (CICA/CISA)

CICA is an “Asian-style security architecture”: broad, inclusive, with an emphasis on confidence-building measures rather than formal guarantees. For Central Eurasia, it creates a platform for “soft” security and interaction with major Asian players.

Among the participants from the Eurasian space are Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan and Russia; also includes Iran, China, India, Türkiye and other states. Established by the Alma-Ata Declaration of 1992; the institutional foundations are enshrined in the 2002 Charter. The Secretariat is located in Almaty, decisions are prepared by summits of heads of state, the Council of Foreign Ministers and the Committee of Senior Officials. The agenda covers the fight against terrorism and transnational crime, economic cooperation, sustainable development and ecology, as well as the “human dimension”. Confidence measures are being developed within the format; In recent years, there has been an initiative to gradually transform the CICA into a full-fledged international organization.

The strength of the CICA lies in network diplomacy and the accumulation of trust practices, which reduces the risks of escalation and facilitates cooperation in non-politicized areas.

Consultative format “3+3” (South Caucasus)

“3+3” was conceived as a regional “round table” after the Second Karabakh War, which was supposed to open the way to infrastructural unblocking. Its potential is high, but political contradictions and asymmetries of trust are holding back the full participation of all parties.

The format involves Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, along with Russia, Turkey and Iran. The idea is to create a platform for consultations on security, transport and economics in the region. Georgia does not officially participate on a permanent basis and de facto occupies an observer position, which limits the comprehensiveness of the format. The key topics of discussion are unblocking transport and economic ties (railroads and road corridors), border security issues, energy and communications infrastructure and confidence-building measures.

The prospects for the format depend on progress in resolving the Armenian-Azerbaijani agenda and on Tbilisi’s readiness to get involved. For now, the format serves as a “de-escalation channel” and preparation of infrastructure solutions, while remaining consultative and limitedly institutionalized.

Asian Development Bank (ADB)

ADB (Asian Development Bank), founded in 1966, finances infrastructure and social projects in Asia and the Eurasian space, including transport, energy, water resources and digitalization. Through CAREC and the Central Asia Investment Fund, ADB supports economic development in Eurasia.

Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)

AIIB (Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank), founded by China in 2015, aims to finance transport and energy infrastructure projects. Its members are more than 100 states, including most countries of Eurasia and Europe. The AIIB is positioned as a “next generation institution” in the architecture of Eurasian development.

European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD)

The EBRD is a key European institution created in 1991 to support the transition economies of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. In recent years, it has expanded its activities to the South Mediterranean and Caucasus countries. The bank finances green energy, infrastructure, SMEs and sustainable development projects.

New Development Bank (NDB, BRICS Bank)

The NDB, created by the BRICS countries in 2014, finances infrastructure and sustainable development projects, serving as an alternative to Western financial institutions. The Bank actively supports projects in Eurasia, in particular in the fields of transport, energy and digital technologies.

Central Asia Economic Cooperation Program (RECA/CAREC)

PEKA (Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation, CAREC, CAREC) is a platform under the auspices of ADB, launched in 1997. The program brings together the countries of Central Asia, the Caucasus, China, Afghanistan and Pakistan to develop transport corridors, energy networks and trade facilitation. CAREC serves as a model for multilateral interstate interaction without the creation of supranational bodies.

European initiatives in Greater Eurasia

Pan-European formats interacting with Asian and Eurasian countries include, among others:

§ Eastern Partnership (EaP) - an EU program aimed at developing economic and institutional interaction with Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova, Ukraine and Belarus;

§ EU Connectivity Strategy – a 2018 framework document aimed at connecting infrastructure projects in Europe and Asia based on sustainability and transparency standards;

§ Global Gateway is an EU initiative aimed at developing digital, transport and energy infrastructure, as well as education and healthcare, including in Eurasia and Africa.

Integration processes in the Greater Eurasia space are multi-level and mosaic in nature. If in Central Eurasia operational and functional formats play a key role - such as the Union State, the EAEU, the CSTO or the C5+1 - then in a broader context a network of initiatives is being formed covering Eastern Europe, South, Southeast and Western Asia, as well as parts of the Middle East and North Africa. There are projects of varying scale and depth here - from strategic platforms like BRICS, ASEAN and the Belt and Road to specialized financial and infrastructure institutions (ADB, AIIB, EBRD, EFSD).

These mechanisms form a polycentric architecture of development and security, based not on rigid supranational structures, but on a network of complementary initiatives and interdependencies. Integration is based on real value chains, transport and energy connectivity, technological cooperation and confidence-building measures. The stability of the region is ensured by the balance of interests between subregions and leading powers, and sustainability is ensured by the depth of economic, infrastructural and institutional ties. Thus, Greater Eurasia is a dynamic space of interconnected development, where economics, logistics and security form an integral system of practical interaction.

4. Interaction of integration associations in the Eurasian space

The interaction of integration associations in the space of Central Eurasia is a complex, multi-layered and dynamic system in which the economic, political and civilizational interests of the states of the region intersect.

The integration architecture of Central Eurasia today is developing around several key centers of power and initiatives - Russia, China and India. These three states set the configuration of regional processes, acting as the reference points of three interconnected, but not completely coinciding integration contours.

Russia concentrates around itself post-Soviet associations - the CIS, the EAEU, the CSTO - in which a model of institutional integration is being implemented, based on regulatory mechanisms, a contractual framework and the desire to harmonize economic, political and legal systems. Through them, Russia is building a sustainable infrastructure of regional connectivity, ensuring the integration of economic, defense and humanitarian tracks.

China, in turn, is forming its own paradigm of economic connectivity through the SCO and the Belt and Road Initiative. For Beijing, integration is predominantly design and infrastructure in nature, emphasizing investment, development of transport corridors and interconnectedness of markets. The Chinese approach focuses on the long-term economic sustainability of the region, while leaving participating states a high level of political autonomy.

India is building a South Asian and trans-regional vector of interaction, strengthening its presence within the SCO and BRICS. Its participation gives Eurasian integration an additional dimension - balancing and civilizational-humanitarian, focused on the development of equal ties between the countries of the Global South and the formation of a multipolar system of international relations.

Thus, Eurasian integration is polycentric in nature. It is developing not according to the model of a centralized association, but in the form of network interconnectedness, where each of the directions - Russian, Chinese and Indian - has its own institutional logic, while interacting through interface formats. These contours partially overlap (primarily in the fields of trade, energy, security and infrastructure), but retain elements of independence, which gives the process flexibility and adaptability.

Against this background, Central Eurasia is becoming a space of cross-interaction of integration tracks, where a unique experience of coordinating interests is being formed in the face of differences in economic models, levels of development and political strategies. Here a new model of integration is emerging - a solidarity type, based not on hierarchy, but on complementarity and balance.

This approach reflects the transition from the traditional logic of geopolitical rivalry to the paradigm of solidary development, where associations and states strive to form a single space of sustainability, security and joint growth. It is through this prism that we should consider the interaction between the CIS, EAEU, CSTO and SCO, as well as their interface with broader formats - BRICS and the Greater Eurasian Partnership, within the framework of which Russia, China and India act not only as national leaders, but also as bearers of a new type of integration subjectivity, capable of setting the direction for the development of all of Eurasia.

General mechanisms of interaction between integration associations

The system of interaction between the main integration associations in Central Eurasia - the CIS, CSTO and SCO - is based on the principles of equality, consensus, mutual respect for sovereignty and functional complementarity. These principles ensure the stability of inter-organizational relations and form the basis for creating a coordinated security and development architecture in the Eurasian space.

The key area remains the coordination of positions on issues of the regional and international agenda, which is carried out through regular meetings of the heads of associations, the exchange of analytical information and the coordination of approaches at the sites of international organizations, primarily the UN.

Since 2007, joint meetings and consultations between representatives of the CSTO, CIS and SCO have been practiced. One of the significant stages in the development of interaction was the signing of Memorandums of Understanding between the Secretariats of the CSTO and the SCO in 2007), and the CSTO and the CIS Executive Committee in 2009. These documents consolidated areas of cooperation in the areas of security, countering terrorism, drug threats and information protection, becoming the basis for practical cooperation.

The interaction between the three organizations gradually acquired a systemic character, developing from the exchange of information to real inter-organizational cooperation. Mutual participation of representatives of the three organizations in exercises has become a regular practice: representatives of the CIS and SCO participate in joint military and peacekeeping exercises of the CSTO (“Frontier”, “Indestructible Brotherhood”), and CSTO delegations take part in anti-terrorist maneuvers and meetings of the SCO Regional Anti-Terrorism Structure (RATS). General command and staff training is also conducted to facilitate the exchange of experience between the security agencies of member states, and joint conferences on cybersecurity and information protection issues.

A new stage of cooperation was consolidated on September 3, 2025 in Beijing, where the 13th meeting of senior administrative officials of the CSTO, CIS and SCO was held on the sidelines of a meeting of the Council of Heads of SCO Member States and in the expanded SCO+ format. The event was attended by the secretaries general of three organizations - Imangali Tasmagambetov (CSTO), Sergei Lebedev (CIS) and Nurlan Yermekbaev (SCO).

During the meeting, the parties discussed priority areas of interaction, agreed on approaches to issues of regional security and sustainable development, and also emphasized the growing role of the three associations in maintaining stability in the Eurasian space.

The key result was the signing of a new Roadmap for the development of cooperation between the CSTO, the CIS and the SCO, aimed at further harmonizing integration processes, harmonizing strategic approaches and strengthening coordination in the field of security, economics and humanitarian interaction.

In addition, the meeting participants adopted a Joint Statement by the Secretaries General of the three organizations dedicated to the 80th anniversary of the end of World War II and the 80th anniversary of the founding of the UN, confirming their commitment to the principles of peace, sovereign equality and multilateral cooperation as the basis of the new Eurasian security architecture.

In general, regular tripartite meetings of the heads of the working bodies of the CSTO, CIS and SCO have become a key tool for institutional dialogue, allowing not only to synchronize activity plans, but also to develop specific joint initiatives in the areas of defense, digital security, migration and humanitarian exchange.

As part of this practice, since the 2010s there have been permanent working groups on Afghanistan, on combating terrorism and drug threats, where experts from the three organizations interact. Through these and other mechanisms, analytical materials and data are exchanged between the relevant divisions of the secretariats, which ensures consistency of actions and increases the efficiency of responding to common challenges to regional security.

On the foundation of interaction between integration associations, Central Eurasia becomes the core of a broader integration process - the formation of Greater Eurasia and the implementation of the concept of the Greater Eurasian Partnership. It is through the coupling of the mechanisms of the CIS, CSTO and SCO with the initiatives of the EAEU and BRICS that a new architecture of interregional cooperation is being formed, uniting the states of the continent into a system of mutual sustainability and solidary development.

Central Eurasia, thus, acts not only as a geographical, but also as an institutional center of Greater Eurasia - a space where the ideas of partnership, equality and multipolarity receive their practical embodiment.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Official documents and international treaties

1.     Alma-Ata Declaration and Protocol to the Agreement on the Creation of the CIS (Alma-Ata, December 21, 1991) // CIS: Constituent Documents. – Minsk: CIS Executive Committee, 1995.

2.     Alma-Ata Declaration on the Establishment of the Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building Measures in Asia (Alma-Ata, October 5, 1992) // CICA Official Website [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: https://s-cica.org

3.     Declaration on Eurasian Economic Integration (Moscow, November 18, 2011) // Official website of the Eurasian Economic Commission [Electronic resource].

4.     Declaration of the CSTO Collective Security Council on measures to strengthen international and regional security (Moscow, December 19, 2012) // Organization of the Collective Security Treaty: official documents. – M.: CSTO Secretariat, 2013.

5.     Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus on the creation of the Union State (Moscow, December 8, 1999) // Collection of legislation of the Russian Federation. – 2000. – No. 7. – Art. 786.

6.     Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Commission (Moscow, November 18, 2011) // Eurasian Economic Integration: documents and comments. – M.: EEC, 2012.

7.     Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union (Astana, May 29, 2014) // Collection of Legislation of the Russian Federation. – 2015. – No. 27. – Art. 3979.

8.     Agreement on a free trade zone (St. Petersburg, October 18, 2011) // Collection of CIS agreements. – Minsk: CIS Executive Committee, 2012.

9.     Treaty on Collective Security (Tashkent, May 15, 1992) // Collection of acts of the CIS and CSTO. – M., 2003.

10. Eurasian Economic Commission. Eurasian economic integration: annual report 2024. – M.: EEC, 2024.

11. Convention on the Interparliamentary Assembly of the CIS Member States (Minsk, May 26, 1995) // Interparliamentary Assembly of the CIS: documents and materials. – St. Petersburg, 1996.

12. The concept of collective security of the states parties to the Collective Security Treaty (February 1995) // CSTO: documents and materials. – M., 1996.

13. Concept of international scientific and technical cooperation of the Russian Federation. – Approved by order of the Government of the Russian Federation of March 25, 2025 No. 678-r. – M.: Government of the Russian Federation, 2025. – 32 p.

14. Concept of cooperation between the CIS member states in the field of hazardous waste management and elimination of objects of accumulated environmental harm and the Plan of Priority Actions for 2024–2029 (approved 2024) // CIS Executive Committee. – [Electronic resource]. – URL: https://cis.minsk.by/ (access date: 10/08/2025).

15. Interstate program of innovative cooperation of the CIS member states for the period until 2030 // CIS Executive Committee. – Minsk: 2021. – 56 p.

16. Interstate Council for Scientific and Technical Cooperation of the CIS Member States. Decision on the creation of a Council for Cooperation in the Field of Fundamental Science (Moscow, 2008) // CIS Executive Committee. – Minsk, 2009.

17. Memorandum of cooperation between the Collective Security Treaty Organization and the United Nations (New York, March 18, 2010) // CSTO Secretariat [Electronic resource].

18. Regulations on the basic organizations of the CIS member states in the field of scientific and technical cooperation (approved by the Decision of the Council of Heads of Government of the CIS of October 18, 2011) // Collection of acts of the CIS. – Minsk, 2012.

19. Recommendation of the EEC Board No. 27 “On the protection of consumer rights during distance trading” (11.21.2017) // EEC. – [Electronic resource]. – URL: https://eec.eaeunion.org/ (access date: 10/08/2025).

20. Joint statement of the CSTO member states on the fight against international terrorism (Moscow, December 23, 2015) // Official website of the CSTO [Electronic resource].

21. Joint statement of the Russian Federation and the People’s Republic of China on the coupling of the Eurasian Economic Union and the Silk Road Economic Belt (Moscow, May 8, 2015) // Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs [Electronic resource].

22. Agreement on interaction in the field of ecology and environmental protection (Minsk, February 8, 1992) // CIS Executive Committee. – [Electronic resource]. – URL: https://cis.minsk.by/ (access date: 10/08/2025).

23. Agreement on the book of rare and endangered species of animals and plants - the Red Book of the CIS member states (Moscow, February 19, 1995) // CIS Executive Committee. – [Electronic resource]. – URL: https://cis.minsk.by/ (access date: 10/08/2025).

24. Agreement on the procedure for managing copyright and related rights on a collective basis (signed on December 11, 2017; entered into force on May 27, 2019) // EEC. – [Electronic resource]. – URL: https://eec.eaeunion.org/ (access date: 10/08/2025).

25. Agreement on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (Minsk, December 8, 1991) // Collection of acts of the CIS.

26. Agreement on cooperation in the field of environmental protection of the CIS member states (Minsk, May 31, 2013) // CIS Executive Committee. – [Electronic resource]. – URL: https://cis.minsk.by/ (access date: 10/08/2025).

27. Agreement on information cooperation in the field of ecology and environmental protection (Moscow, November 13, 1998) // CIS Executive Committee. – [Electronic resource]. – URL: https://cis.minsk.by/ (access date: 10/08/2025).

28. Agreement on the basic principles of interaction in the field of rational use and protection of transboundary water bodies (Moscow, September 11, 1998) // CIS Executive Committee. – [Electronic resource]. – URL: https://cis.minsk.by/ (access date: 10/08/2025).

29. Strategic directions for the development of Eurasian economic integration until 2025 (decision of the Supreme Eurasian Economic Council dated December 11, 2020) // Eurasian Economic Commission. – [Electronic resource]. – URL: https://eec.eaeunion.org/ (access date: 10/08/2025).

30. Tashkent Declaration of the fifteenth anniversary of the SCO (Tashkent, June 24, 2016) // Official website of the SCO [Electronic resource].

31. Charter of the Collective Security Treaty Organization (Moscow, October 7, 2002) // CSTO: regulations and decisions. – M., 2004.

32. Charter of the Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building Measures in Asia (Almaty, June 7, 2002) // CICA: constituent documents. – Almaty: CICA Secretariat, 2002.

33. Charter of the Commonwealth of Independent States (Minsk, January 22, 1993) // CIS: Constituent documents and decisions of the Commonwealth bodies. – Minsk: CIS Executive Committee, 1995.

34. Charter of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (St. Petersburg, June 7, 2002) // SCO: official documents. – Beijing: SCO Secretariat, 2003.

Electronic resources

Interparliamentary Assembly of the CIS Member States: https://iacis.ru

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation: https://mid.ru

BRICS official website: https://brics-russia2024.ru

Official website of the EAEU / EEC: https://eec.eaeunion.org

CSTO official website: https://odkb-csto.org

Official website of the CIS: https://cis.minsk.by

Official website of the Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building Measures in Asia (CICA): https://s-cica.org

Official website of the Union State: https://soyuz.by

SCO official website: https://sco.int

EFSD official website: https://efsd.org